没有时间焦虑了
——焦虑、时间结构和时间管理之间的关系
原文作者 William E. Kelly 单位Graduate Department of Counseling, George Fox University, Portland Center; 12753 S.W. 68th Avenue, Portland, OR 97223, USA
摘要:本研究调查了130名大学生的焦虑和时间使用之间的关系,参与者被要求填写学生焦虑量表(Davey等,1992)、时间结构问卷(Bond amp; Feather, 1988)和时间管理行为量表(Macan等,1990)。TSQ总分及其三个因素(目标感、当前定向和持久性)与焦虑呈负相关,而TMB与焦虑无关。调查结果表明,对时间使用的结构和目的的感知,而不是对实际时间管理行为的使用,可能有助于减少焦虑。
关键词:时间管理;时间结构;担心;焦虑;压力
1.介绍
Csikszentmihalyi(1990)的理论著作认为,用吸引人的、有趣的、令人愉快的活动占据一个人的时间可以释放心理能量,而这些能量可以被“浪费在焦虑hellip;hellip;上”(第42页)。换句话说,一个人如果全神贯注于有条理的、令人愉快的活动,就不会那么焦虑。其他作家也有类似的感受(Csikszentmi halyi, 1975;汉密尔顿,1981)。事实上,Kelly和Miller(1999)在他们的咨询建议中提出,提供结构可能有助于减少个人的焦虑。
Kelly (2002b)进一步指出,合理安排时间(不一定是一般的结构),可能是减少不愉快的心理体验的关键因素。前期研究(Bond amp; Feather,1988;Macan, Shahani, Dipboye, amp; Phillips, 1990)支持这一论断。因此,从理论上讲,合理安排时间可能有助于减轻焦虑。然而,具体检验这种可能性的实证调查尚未进行。本研究的目的是探讨焦虑与两个与时间相关的变量(时间结构、目的与时间管理)之间的关系。
Bond和Feather(1988)开发了一种时间结构和目的的测量方法(时间结构问卷:TSQ),来测量个人在他们的时间里秩序和意义的程度。Bond和Feather(1988)报告说,在TSQ上得分较高的个体,在心理健康(自尊、生活目的和外向性)和努力工作倾向方面得分也较高,而在压力(抑郁、焦虑、绝望和神经质)和身体症状方面得分较低。时间结构和目的(TSQ)也与无聊倾向呈负相关(Vodanovich amp; Watt,1999)。
时间管理行为量表(TMB;Macan等,1990)被用来测量被认为是“时间管理结构的关键”的行为(761页)。衡量时间使用的不同元素是用TMB(Macan等,1990)而不是TSQ。例如,TMB被设计用来测量特定的时间管理行为(例如,计划和目标设定),而TSQ测量更一般的时间相关信息(例如,时间使用和当前导向)。TMB报告的作者说,报告时间管理行为较多(TMB得分较高)的人在a型人格、工作和生活满意度、学业表现等方面得分较高,而在压力方面得分较低。更多的研究表明,时间管理行为(TMB得分高)也与预测任务持续时间的准确性(Francis-Smythe amp; Robert-son,1999),降低工作压力和增加工作满意度(Macan,1994),以及降低特质拖延症得分(Lay,1992)有关。
焦虑与两个和时间相关的构念有关。焦虑与拖延症呈正相关(Stober amp; Joormann,2001),可以将其定义为推迟某些活动并将当前时间用于其他目的。拖延者通常在使用时间方面没有很好的组织和结构(McCown,Petze,amp; Rupert,1987)。焦虑也与无聊倾向呈正相关(Kelly,2002a)。从概念上讲,无聊可能被视为一个人的时间是空的或不从事有趣的活动(Mikulas amp; Vodanovich,1993)。
Csikszentmihalyi(1990)认为,能够以这样一种方式来组织一个人的意识,即进入意识的信息与一个人的目标一致,自我概念减少了消极的心理活动,包括担忧。组织意识可以通过在自我和环境中创造秩序来实现。这样看来,时间的结构和顺序可能有助于减少不确定性,从而减少焦虑者环境中感知到的危险(Dugas,,Gosselin,amp; Ladouceur, 2001)。在环境中提供一些结构和秩序可能有助于减少不断寻求解决方案的需要和来自外部威胁的防范、担忧者的常见行为(Kelly amp; Miller, 1999)。如果是这样的话,那么安排和管理自己的时间就能减少焦虑。因此,本研究假设焦虑与时间结构和时间管理呈负相关。
2.方法
2.1.参与者
参与者包括130名(85名女性)报名参加心理学本科课程的本科生,他们自愿参加本研究以获得额外学分。样本的平均年龄为25.6岁(S.D.=8.6),从18岁到49岁不等。大部分(84%)的人认为自己是白人/白种人。
2.2.设备
2.2.1.焦虑
测量焦虑采用十项学生焦虑量表(SWS; Davey, Hampton, Farrell, amp; Davidson, 1992)。该量表与常用的担忧领域问卷(Tallis, Eysenck, amp; Mathews, 1991)相似,但比后者更简短。SWS要求参与者表明“他们对与学生相关的10个内容领域有多担心”(第53页)。这些领域包括学术,财务,生活住宿,他们的健康,工作前景,世界事务,个人关系,宗教问题,他们如何被别人感知,和环境问题。受访者的回答分为四个等级,从“几乎从不”到“几乎总是”。焦虑总分是通过对所有项目的回答相加得出的。分数从10到40分不等,分数越高表示越焦虑。
SWS的可靠性一般来自高度的内部一致性,大约达0.68到0.70 (Davey, 1993;Davey等,1992)。SWS与其他焦虑量表和假设相关变量的相关性证明了SWS的有效性。例如,SWS与焦虑域问卷、Meyer、Miller、Metzger和Borkovec(1990)的宾州焦虑问卷、Spielberger(1983)的状态-特质焦虑量表(Davey 等,1992;Russell amp; Davey,1993)有很强的相似性。SWS还与较差的问题解决效能、对消极结果而非积极结果的责任感以及逃避应对行为相关(Davey等,1992)。
2.2.2.时间结构和目的
时间结构和目的采用26项TSQ (Bond amp; Feather, 1988)进行测量。每个条目都使用锚定响应,范围从“从不”到“总是”(每个条目的锚定措辞略有不同)。TSQ的内部一致性在0.88到0.92的3个样本之间,15周内重测的可靠性为0.76 (Bond amp; Feather, 1988)。TSQ的有效性是通过变量之间的假设关系来确定的(参见前面的综述)。分数相加得到总的时间使用分数。得分从26分到130分不等,分数越高,说明在时间使用方面越有结构和目的。
根据研究,TSQ有五个有意义的子量表:(1)目的性,表明个人感知自己的时间利用的程度的目的;(2)有条理的日程安排,为了完成目标而安排的日常事务和时间;(3)存在取向,集中在“现在”,而不是过去或未来;(4)有效的组织,即衡量组织、规划和动机,而不是漫无目的地使用时间;(5)持久性,指不轻易放弃的倾向,以及事件的后续发展直至完成(Bond amp; Feather, 1988)。Mudrack(1997)的因子分析普遍支持这些子量表的存在及其可靠性。例如,子量表的阿尔法系数一般都超过0.70。
2.2.3.时间管理
时间管理用使用34个项目的TMBS来评估(Macan等,1990)。每个问题的回答都以五分制为基础,从“很少正确”到“通常正确”。TMB的可靠性已经被证明,其使用内部一致性,范围从0.83到0.86 (Lahmers amp; Zulauf,2000;Macan等,1990)。TMB的有效性是通过假设变量之间的关系来确定的(见上文)。分数的总和产生了一个总时间管理量表,范围从34到170。分数越高表示时间管理行为越好。
根据研究,TMB有四个有意义的子量表:(1)设定目标和优先级,设定目标衡量一个人想要或需要完成和优先级来实现目标;(2)时间管理结构,衡量与管理有关的特定行为;(3)对组织的偏好,衡量一个人在工作空间和任务方法中对组织的一般偏好;(4)对时间的感知控制,包括测量个体认为他们能够影响时间使用的程度的项目(Macan等,1990)。Macan等人的研究显示这些子量表的内部一致性超过0.60。
2.3.程序
在提供了知情同意之后,参与者完成了SWS、TSQ、TMB(随机顺序),并在一个小组中完成了人口统计调查。直到所有参与者都返回了调查问卷,研究假设的细节才得以披露。
3.结果
本研究采用的所有测量方法的均值、标准差、内部一致性见表1。从表中可以看出,除了目前的定位(TSQ)和控制(TMB)因素外,这些测量方法对于研究工具(0.70或更高,参见Nunnally,1978)通常具有足够的一致性。但是,这些较低的内部一致性与以前在方法一节中提出的研究结果相似。初步t检验显示,男女SWS评分差异无统计学意义,t(128)=0.73, P=0.43,TSQ总分,t(128)=0.73, P=0.47,TMB总分,t(128)=0.51, P=0.61。因此,在随后的分析中,性别被分解。SWS、TSQ、TMB及其子量表之间的皮尔逊相关关系如表2所示。从表中可以看出,SWS与总TSQ得分和TSQ目的感、当前定向和持久性分量表得分呈显著负相关。有趣的是,SWS与总TMB或任何TMB亚量表没有显著的相关性。
表 1
SWS、TSQ和TMB的平均值、标准偏差和内部一致性a
度量尺度 |
M |
S,D. |
alpha; |
SWS |
24.2 |
5.6 |
0.81 |
TSQ总 |
95.4 |
18.6 |
0.90 |
目标 |
26.7 |
5.9 |
0.78 |
规划性 |
23.4 |
6.6 |
0.74 |
现实导向 |
9.5 |
3.9 |
0.65 |
组织 |
19.0 |
5.0 |
0.75 |
持久性 |
16.8 |
3.6 |
0.77 |
TMB总 |
109.5 |
20.0 |
0.88 |
设立目标 |
33.3 |
8.3 |
0.88 |
结构 |
29.4 |
9.5 |
0.82 |
组织 |
29.9 |
6.0 |
0.70 |
控制 |
17.0 |
4.0 |
0.62 |
a N=130. SWS,,学生焦虑量表; TSQ,时间结构问卷; TMB,时间管理行为量表。
表 2
SWS、TSQ、TMB和子量表之间的Pearson相关性a
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No time to worry: the relationship between worry, time structure, and time management
William E. Kelly*
Graduate Department of Counseling, George Fox University, Portland Center; 12753 S.W. 68th Avenue, Portland, OR 97223, USA
Received 26 November 2001; received in revised form 2 August 2002; accepted 20 October 2002
Abstract
This study investigated the relationship between worry and time use among 130 undergraduate students. Participants were administered the Student Worry Scale (Davey et al., 1992), the Time Structure Ques- tionnaire (Bond amp; Feather, 1988), and the Time Management Behavior Scale (Macan et al., 1990). Total TSQ scores and three of its factors (sense of purpose, present orientation, and persistence) were negatively related to worry. However, the TMB did not correlate with worry. The results were interpreted to indicate that perceptions of structure and purpose in time use, but not the use of actual time management behaviors, might be beneficial in decreasing worry.
# 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Time management; Time structure; Worry; Anxiety; Stress
- Introduction
Theoretical writings by Csikszentmihalyi (1990) suggest that occupying onersquo;s time with absorbing, interesting, and enjoyable activities can liberate psychological energy that might instead be lsquo;lsquo;wasted on.. .worryrsquo;rsquo; (p. 42). In other words, one who is engrossed in structured, enjoyable activities may worry less. Other writers have shared similar sentiments (Csikszentmi- halyi, 1975; Hamilton, 1981). Indeed, in their counseling suggestions, Kelly and Miller (1999) suggested that providing structure might be beneficial in reducing individualsrsquo; worry.
* Tel.: 1-503-554-6143; fax: 1-503-554-6111.
E-mail address: wkelly@georgefox.edu (W.E. Kelly).
0191-8869/03/$ - see front matter # 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/S0191-8869(02)00322-7
Kelly (2002b) further specifies that structuring onersquo;s time, not necessarily structure in general, may be a key element in reducing unpleasant psychological experiences. Previous research (Bond amp; Feather, 1988; Macan, Shahani, Dipboye, amp; Phillips, 1990) supports this assertion. Thus, theoretically, structuring onersquo;s time might somewhat help to alleviate worry. However, empirical investigations to specifically test this possibility have not been conducted. The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between worry and two time-related variables (time struc- ture and purpose and time management).
Bond and Feather (1988) developed a measure of time structure and purpose (the Time Structure Questionnaire: TSQ), to measure the degree to which individuals order and have meaning in their time. Bond and Feather (1988) report that individuals scoring higher on the TSQ also score higher on measures of psychological well-being (self-esteem, purpose in life, and extraversion) and an orientation towards hard work, and lower on measures of distress (depression, anxiety, hopelessness, and neuroticism) and physical symptoms. Time structure and purpose (the TSQ) has also been negatively related to boredom proneness (Vodanovich amp; Watt, 1999).
The Time Management Behavior Scale (TMB; Macan et al., 1990) was developed to measure behaviors thought to be lsquo;lsquo;critical to the construct of time managementrsquo;rsquo; (p. 761). The TMB is thought to measure different elements of time use than the TSQ (Macan et al., 1990). For instance, the TMB was designed to measure specific time management behaviors (e.g., planning and goal setting), while the TSQ measures more general time-related information (e.g., persis- tence in time use and present orientation). The authors of the TMB report that individuals reporting more time management behaviors (scoring high on the TMB) score higher on measures of Type-A personality, job and life satisfaction, academic performance, and lower on measures of stress. Additional research has indicated that time management behaviors (high scores on the TMB) are also related to more accuracy in predicting task duration (Francis-Smythe amp; Robert- son, 1999), decreased work-tension and increased job satisfaction (Macan, 1994), and lower scores on trait-procrastination (Lay, 1992).
Worry has been related to two time-related constructs. Worry has been positively related to procrastination (Stober amp; Joormann, 2001), which can be defined as delaying certain activities and using current time for other purposes. Procrastinators are typically not well organized or structured in time use (McCown, Petzel, amp; Rupert, 1987). Worry has also been positively related to boredom proneness (Kelly, 2002a). Conceptually, boredom might be seen as having onersquo;s time empty or not engaging in interesting activities (Mikulas amp; Vodanovich, 1993).
Csikszentmihalyi (1990) suggests that being able to organize onersquo;s consciousness in such a way that information coming into awareness is congruent with onersquo;s goals and self-concept reduces negative psychological activity, including worry. Organizing consciousness can be partly accom- plished by creating order in the self and the environment. It seems possible, then, that structure and order of time might serve to decrease uncertainty and therefore the perceived danger in worriersrsquo; environments (Dugas, Gosselin, amp; Ladouceur, 2001). Providing some structure and order in the environment might serve to reduce the need to continually seek solutions and pro- tection from outside threats, common behaviors of worriers (Kelly amp; Miller, 1999). If this were the case, then providing structuring and management of onersquo;s time should be associated with decreased worry. It was hypothesized, therefore, that in this study worry would neg
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定距型数据 |
SWS相关性 |
TSQ总 |
—0.21* |
目标 |
0.23* |
规划性 |
0.09 |
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