第一篇:
超越分钟:教师在家庭作业中的角色
原文作者 Joyce L. Epstein and Frances L. Van Voorhis
摘要:本文首先回顾了教育者在调查研究、访谈和家庭作业研讨会中确定的家庭作业的目的。 然后我们从研究中了解家庭作业的完成,家庭作业的时间,家长的参与是如何影响教师在家庭作业过程中的角色。最后,我们提出了一项新的家庭作业设计——交互式家庭作业——的研究结果,这项研究是教师为了满足提高学生技能、增加家长与教师的交流、改善亲子关系的特定目的而在语文、数学和科学方面实施的。
关键词:家庭作业设计;交互式作业;相关方面;
家庭作业一直以来都是社会研究的课题,但是很少有研究关注教师在家庭作业过程中的作用。 大多数研究调查学生做什么,完成家庭作业或花费时间是否以及如何影响学生在学校的成绩或成功。然而,家庭作业的过程始于教师,他们选择作业的主题和内容,以帮助学生达到特定的学习目标。因此,老师不仅布置作业,他们还设计作业。设计家庭作业需要教师考虑作业的目的、格式和其他能够吸引学生并帮助他们成功的因素。习作不但反映教师对课程的认识,亦反映他们对学生的技能、能力、需要,以及学生家庭的特点和情况的了解。
家庭作业被认为是成功学校和成功学生的一个指标。科尔曼、霍弗和基尔戈(1982)得出结论,更多的家庭作业和更好的纪律是私立学校比公立学校更成功的学习环境的两个原因。 同样,研究表明,美国学生做的家庭作业比其他国家的学生少。这意味着,如果美国公立学校的老师布置更多的家庭作业,学生会学到更多,学校也会更有效率。
这个处方可能太简单了。仅仅布置“更多”的家庭作业是对一系列复杂问题的机械反应。 目前很少或没有作业的学生不太可能仅仅因为布置了更多的作业而更加努力和更加长时间地学习。呼吁增加家庭作业是基于这样一种信念,即学生花在作业上的时间越多,他们学到的东西就越多。 然而,正如下面几节所展示的,家庭作业的目的是多种多样的,时间与家庭作业和学生成绩之间的联系是复杂的。 除了时间,家庭作业设计的其他方面对于鼓励更多的学生完成作业也很重要。 例如,家长的参与是家庭作业设计的一个要素,这可能会鼓励学生花更多的时间完成更高质量的作业。
家庭作业的目的
对教师的早期调查和访谈,最近的研究,以及与教育工作者的定期研讨会表明,教师布置家庭作业有许多原因。 对这些来源的信息进行内容分析,揭示了家庭作业的10大目的: 练习、准备、参与、个人发展、亲子关系、家长-教师交流、同伴互动、政策、公共关系和惩罚。 为满足这些目的而设计的作业应该有助于提高学生的学习和发展,发展家庭-学校-社区的伙伴关系,以及改善教学和行政实践。 为了理解教师在家庭作业过程中的角色,我们认为从教师为什么要给学生布置家庭作业的信息入手是很重要的。
有些家庭作业是为了让学生有机会练习课堂上教授的技能,提高速度,展示掌握技能,保留技能,复习功课,为考试而学习。 教师报告说,他们在小学年级布置家庭作业的主要原因是给学生时间练习课堂上的技能(贝克尔和爱泼斯坦,1982年)。 在一项针对5年级、8年级和10年级学生的早期研究中,Garner (1978年)观察到,在初中和高中,每天25到30分钟的数学作业会增加超过31-2年的练习和掌握数学的时间。
制作方法
老师可以布置家庭作业,以确保每个学生都为下一节课做好准备。这可能包括要求学生完成未完成的课堂活动和作业的家庭作业。 家庭作业可以设计来帮助学生学习和内化他们在学校学到的东西,为下一堂课的教学做准备。例如,学生可以在学校开始一系列的数学问题,然后完成家庭作业。家庭作业的设计也可能是为了激发学生对某个主题的思考,就像老师要求学生为将要在课堂上写的文章概述想法一样。
参与
家庭作业可以增加每个学生在学习、应用特定技能和知识以及进行项目中的参与度。 通常在课堂上,一些学生对参与进来犹豫不决。 家庭作业的设计可以吸引所有学生参与积极的学习,例如进行和报告科学实验,写论文,评论一本书,或进行其他项目。
个人发展
家庭作业的另一个目的是培养学生的责任心、毅力、时间管理能力、自信心和成就感; 同时培养和认识学生在课堂上可能没有学到的技能方面的才能。 一些老师设计家庭作业来帮助学生学会管理他们的时间,建立工作时间表,培养学习技能和发展研究技能(哈佛教育通讯,1985; 麦克德莫特,高盛和瓦伦内,1984; Muhlenbruck 等人,2000)。 在家里,学生可以控制他们花在不同技能上的时间,他们使用的书籍或资源,以及与父母、兄弟姐妹和朋友协商完成工作的次数(Leone amp; Richards,1989)。 学生也可能需要学习如何处理家庭中的干扰(Cooper,Lindsay,amp; Nye,2000; Xu amp; Corno,1998)。 为个人发展而设计的家庭作业也可以扩展或丰富学生在音乐、艺术、戏剧、机械、建筑和其他兴趣领域的技能和天赋。
亲子关系
家庭作业的设计可能是为了引导和促进父母和孩子之间的积极交流。 亲子对话有助于强化学校作业、家庭作业和学习的重要性,并促进学生对在现实生活中如何使用学校作业的理解。 家庭作业可能会引发父母或其他家庭伙伴与孩子之间关于学生在课堂上学习的对话。 一些家庭作业可能有助于让父母和孩子更亲近,以享受学习和交流思想。 几十年前,梅尔滕斯和约翰斯顿发现,从父母那里得到数学作业反馈的学生比其他学生更能掌握数学技能。 最近,Van Voorhis 发现,当学生和他们的父母对科学家庭作业充满热情时,学生比那些对科学态度不积极或不符合父母观点的学生完成更多的家庭作业,并在准确性方面获得更多的分数。
家长与教师沟通
家庭作业可以有目的地设计,使教师能够向所有家庭通报其子女的课外活动,并让所有家庭参与其中。 教师可以组织程序和作业,让家长了解课堂上教授的主题,孩子的进步,如何支持孩子的工作和进步,以及如何与教师联系。 一些老师要求家长签署学生的家庭作业议程或完成的作业。 有些家庭作业可能是为家长设计的,以便给有特殊弱点的学生提供额外的帮助。 这些作业要求教师提供明确的指导方针或培训,以便家长能够成功地扮演“导师”的角色。 此外,教师可以设计家庭作业,鼓励学生与家庭伙伴进行对话,以完成作业。
同伴互动
一些家庭作业的设计可能是为了鼓励学生一起工作,互相激励和学习。 学生可以和朋友或同龄人一起完成短期或长期的作业、项目和为考试而学习。爱泼斯坦和凡沃尔希的行为可能是正式的,有指定的伙伴和角色,或非正式的,与朋友在家里或在电话上。 研究表明,当青少年在家庭作业上互相支持时,学生的数学和英语成绩会更高。
政策
教师可根据学校或地区的政策,布置指定数量的家庭作业。个别教师、校长、整个学校的工作人员、地区管理人员或教育家长团队可以决定学生每天或每周应收到一定数量的家庭作业。 政策指示应与其他作业程序相结合。 例如,小学、初中和高中的家长报告说,他们在周末有时间帮助孩子完成家庭作业,但是一些学校只在工作日布置家庭作业,从而减少了亲子互动的机会。
公共关系
布置家庭作业是为了向家长和公众证明学校有严格的学术程序和高标准的学生作业。 研究人员建议好学校布置家庭作业(Coleman 等人,1982年) ,好学生布置家庭作业(Rutter,Maughan,Mortimore 和 Ouston,1979年) ,好老师布置更多的家庭作业(Corno,1996年)。 当对学校作业和家庭作业的期望得到满足时,家庭、企业和其他社区合作伙伴可能更有可能在其他方面支持学校和学生。
惩罚
历史上,一些老师用家庭作业来纠正学生行为或生产力方面的问题。 现在,老师们报告说,布置家庭作业来惩罚学生注意力不集中或行为不端的行为是不合理的。 一些研究人员将家庭作业本身描述为一种惩罚性的活动,尤其是指设计不当或过于繁重的作业,这些作业会让学生感到困惑或挫败。 家庭作业的不同目的并不是相互排斥的; 家庭作业可以设计成满足一个或几个目的。 例如,小学和中学教师报告说,他们布置家庭作业是为了帮助学生学习、培养学习技能和管理时间,从而认识到练习、准备和个人发展是家庭作业的三个目的。 研究需要检查作业的设计和内容是否符合教师陈述的目的,以及不同的作业设计如何影响学生的成绩。 下一部分总结了关于作业完成和时间的研究如何告知和影响教师在作业过程中的角色。
外文文献出处:Educational Psychologist Volume 36, 2001 - Issue 3
附外文文献原文
More Than Minutes: Teachersrsquo; Roles in Designing Homework
TEACHERSrsquo; ROLES IN HOME
Joyce L. Epstein and Frances L. Van Voorhis
Center on School, Family, and Community Partnerships
Johns Hopkins University
Homework has long been a topic of social research, but relatively few studies have focused on the teacherrsquo;s role in the homework process. Most research examines what students do, and whether and how the completion of homework or time spent affects student achievement or success in school (Cooper, 1989; Paschal, Weinstein, amp; Walberg, 1984; and see Cooper amp; Valentine, 2001). Yet, the homework process begins with teachers who choose the topics and content of assignments to help students meet particular learning goals. Thus, teachers not only assign homework, they also design homework. Designing homework requires teachers to consider the purposes, format, and other elements of assignments that will engage students and help them succeed. Assignments not only reflect teachersrsquo; knowledge of the curriculum, but also their understanding of the skills, abilities, and needs of their students, and the characteristics and situations of their studentsrsquo; families (Epstein, 2001).
Homework is recognized as one indicator of successful schools and successful students. Coleman, Hoffer, and Kilgore (1982) conclude that more homework and better discipline were two reasons why private schools were more successful learning environments than public schools. Similarly, studies have shown that students in the United States do less homework than do students in other countries (Chen amp; Stevenson, 1989; Stevenson et al., 1990). The implication is that if teachers in U.S. public schools assigned more homework, students would learn more and the schools would be more effective.
This prescription may be too simple. Just assigning “more” homework is a mechanical response to a set of co
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NO.1
More Than Minutes: Teachersrsquo; Roles in Designing Homework
TEACHERSrsquo; ROLES IN HOME
Joyce L. Epstein and Frances L. Van Voorhis
Center on School, Family, and Community Partnerships
Johns Hopkins University
Homework has long been a topic of social research, but relatively few studies have focused on the teacherrsquo;s role in the homework process. Most research examines what students do, and whether and how the completion of homework or time spent affects student achievement or success in school (Cooper, 1989; Paschal, Weinstein, amp; Walberg, 1984; and see Cooper amp; Valentine, 2001). Yet, the homework process begins with teachers who choose the topics and content of assignments to help students meet particular learning goals. Thus, teachers not only assign homework, they also design homework. Designing homework requires teachers to consider the purposes, format, and other elements of assignments that will engage students and help them succeed. Assignments not only reflect teachersrsquo; knowledge of the curriculum, but also their understanding of the skills, abilities, and needs of their students, and the characteristics and situations of their studentsrsquo; families (Epstein, 2001).
Homework is recognized as one indicator of successful schools and successful students. Coleman, Hoffer, and Kilgore (1982) conclude that more homework and better discipline were two reasons why private schools were more successful learning environments than public schools. Similarly, studies have shown that students in the United States do less homework than do students in other countries (Chen amp; Stevenson, 1989; Stevenson et al., 1990). The implication is that if teachers in U.S. public schools assigned more homework, students would learn more and the schools would be more effective.
This prescription may be too simple. Just assigning “more” homework is a mechanical response to a set of complex issues. Students who presently do little or no homework are unlikely to work harder and longer just because more homework is assigned (Corno, 1996). The call for more homework is based on a belief that the more time students spend on schoolwork, the more they will learn. However, as the next sections show, the purposes of homework are varied,and the connections of time on homework and student achievement are complex. In addition to time, other aspects of homework design also are important for encouraging more students to do their assignments. For example, parental involvement is one element of homework design that may encourage students to spend more time and complete their assignments with higher quality work (Epstein, 2001; Hoover-Dempsey et al., 2001).
This article begins with a review of the purposes of homework that have been identified by educators in survey research, and in interviews and workshops on homework. We then draw from research to understand how homework completion, time on homework, and parental involvement inform and affect the teacherrsquo;s role in the homework process. Finally, we review the results of research on one new homework design–interactive homework–that teachers have implemented in language arts, math, and science to meet the specific purposes of improving student skills, increasing parent–teacher communication, and improving parent–child relations.
PURPOSES OF HOMEWORK
Early surveys and interviews of teachers (Becker amp; Epstein, 1982; Epstein, 1988; Epstein amp; Becker, 1982), comprehensive reviews of research on homework (Cooper, 1989; Paschal et al., 1984), recent studies (Corno, 2000; Muhlenbruck, Cooper, Nye, amp; Lindsay, 2000), and periodic workshops with educators (Epstein amp; Van Voorhis, 2000) indicate that there are many reasons that teachers assign homework. A content analysis of information from these sources revealed 10 broad purposes of homework: practice, preparation, participation, personal development, parent–child relations, parent–teacher communications, peer interactions, policy, public relations, and punishment (Epstein, 1988; 2001). Assignments designed to meet these purposes should help increase student learning and development, develop home–school–community partnerships, and improve teaching and administrative practice. To understand the teacherrsquo;s role in the homework process, we believe it is important to begin with information on why teachers assign homework to students.
Some homework is designed to give students opportunities to practice skills taught in class, increase speed, demonstrate mastery, retain skills, review work, and study for tests. Teachers reported that the main reason they assigned homework in the elementary grades is to give students time to practice skills from class lessons (Becker and Epstein, 1982). In an early study of 5th-, 8th-, and 10th-grade students, Garner (1978) observed that 25 to 30 min of math homework a day in middle and high school would add more than 3frac12; years of time for practicing and mastering math.
Preparation
Teachers may assign homework to ensure that each student is ready for the next lesson. This may include homework that asks the student to complete unfinished classroom activities andassignments.Homeworkmaybedesignedtohelpstudents study and internalize what they learned in school in preparation for the next lessons that will be taught (Muhlenbrook et al., 2000; Paulu, 1995). For example, students may begin a series of math problems in school and complete the work for homework. Homework also may be designed to stimulate studentsrsquo; thinking about a topic, as when teachers ask students to outline ideas for an essay that will be written in class.
Participation
Homework may increase each studentrsquo;s involvement in learning, in applying specific skills and knowledge, and in conducting projects. Often in class, some students are hesitant to participate. Homework may be designe
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