小学生学习困难和工作记忆缺陷的关系
——以印度尼西亚雅加达为例
原文作者 Wiguna Tjhin
摘要:
目标:儿童学习困难有多种可能的原因。越来越多的证据表明,许多学习困难学生有显著的工作记忆缺陷。在一个印度尼西亚雅加达的小学生样本中,发现学习困难学生普遍存在,并且大部分都有工作记忆的缺陷。
方法:实验对象(N=423)通过随机抽样从27所小学中抽取。第一阶段是对这些学生的横断面研究,而第二阶段则是一项对照研究,将所有学习困难和工作记忆缺陷的学生与学校类型、年级水平和性别匹配的对照组进行对比。
结果:在这些学生中,他们的平均年龄是9.34岁(1.78),13.7%有学习困难,8.04%有学习障碍的问题,有工作记忆缺陷。共病工作记忆缺陷的机率比(在学习困难的情况下)是7.0(2=35.96,p小于0.001)。
结论:在小学生中,学习困难和共同工作记忆缺陷是比较常见的。应努力确定这些学生,并及时提供帮助,以优化他们的教育成就和精神健康状况。
关键词:学习困难;工作记忆;小学;学生
介绍
学习过程中涉及到多个大脑过程,这样一来,任何一个过程的中断都可能导致学习上的困难。精神卫生专业人员经常参与照顾有学习困难的儿童和青少年,因为这些条件对学业成就、自尊和整体功能有重大影响。虽然在学习困难的患病率上似乎存在差异,但这些情况是儿童最普遍的心理健康问题之一。例如,在美国,学龄儿童中所有学习困难的患病率约为6-10%。不幸的是,在印度尼西亚,世界上人口最多的国家之一,没有有效的学习困难的数据。
学习困难被定义为一种显著的差异,而不是通过身体或感官上的缺陷——在孩子的智力功能和学业表现之间——来解释。虽然有几项研究已经确定了遗传因素、感觉运动系统整合障碍和早产作为学习障碍的风险因素,但没有一个已知的原因。
最近的研究集中于工作记忆在学习困难中的作用。这些研究发现(1)工作记忆是学习能力的重要预测因子;(2)工作记忆评估对决定学习能力有帮助,也许比智商分数更能说明智力水平。
工作记忆是在短时间内储存和操作信息的能力。它使人能够注意、记住,并根据立即得到的信息行动。与短期记忆相比,工作记忆需要信息存储和处理能力,而短期记忆只需要信息保留。工作记忆是执行功能的一个重要组成部分,它被认为是解决问题的基础。因此,工作记忆对于获得新的知识和技能是至关重要的。解剖上,工作记忆是由额叶调节的。
工作记忆对于最优完成课堂活动至关重要,包括那些需要记忆指令和需要信息处理和耐力的活动。有工作记忆缺陷的儿童可能注意力不集中,容易分心(不一定是多动症),与同龄人相比学习成绩较差。他们有过早辍学和无法在生活中发挥潜能的危险。
阿洛维说,智力和记忆是学习的两个重要组成部分。许多研究表明,在5岁时,工作记忆可能比智力更能预测未来6年及以后的学习能力。奥丽芙提到,工作记忆的局限影响了阅读能力的影响,因为主化和处理信息之间缺乏同步化。
Wiguna等人在儿童发展和儿童精神病学门诊部的一项初步研究中发现,28%的儿童有学习困难,但没有区分他们是否有工作记忆缺失。在达勒姆大学领导的一项研究中,有百分之十的孩子的记忆力问题严重影响了学习能力。
到目前为止,关于智力水平与学业成绩的关系的研究还没有明确指出学习困难的最佳管理,因为工作记忆功能还没有被考虑。例如,在写作过程中,视觉工作记忆起着重要的作用,因为它储存了已经写好的单词的正字法信息,作为捕捉拼写或其他错误的辅助手段,也代表了文本的物理布局。如果工作记忆功能有任何不足,这些孩子的写作过程就会更慢、更费力。
因此,本研究的目的是:(1)确定有学习困难和工作记忆不足的小学生的比例;(2)在学习困难的学生中确定工作记忆的概率比。
方法
这是一个两阶段的研究。第一个阶段为横断面研究(n=423),该研究试图确定学生在学习困难和工作记忆缺失之间存在共病的比例。有学习困难的儿童被定义为在智力功能和学业成就之间存在差异的孩子,而这些差异无法通过身体或感官缺陷来解释。此外,在本研究中,学习困难的定义是在孩子的学习成绩低于平均分的情况下,与他们的同学的学术成绩相比(基于他们上学期的成绩单显示了平均的学业成绩),没有明显的物理、感觉和智力功能障碍的历史。医学历史访谈和基本体格检查均已完成,以排除身体和感觉障碍。智力功能的定义是基于精神障碍诊断和统计手册的精神障碍诊断和统计手册。
我们的研究对象是一所公立小学一年级到六年级的小学生。入选标准;(1)小学一至六年级学生;(2)父母报告的无慢性身体疾病;(3)无严重精神障碍,如精神障碍、严重抑郁或其他情绪障碍。智力迟钝的儿童被排除在外。
第二阶段是病例对照研究(n=230),计算出学习困难学生的工作记忆缺陷的概率比。所有学习困难的儿童和第一阶段的工作记忆缺陷都包括在这个阶段(n=58)。对照组是没有任何学习困难的孩子,他们来自类似的学校、班级、年龄和性别。我们为每个案例收集了3个控件(n=172)。控制的纳入标准为:(1)无学习困难;(2)小学一至六年级学生;(3)父母报告的无慢性身体疾病;(4)无严重精神障碍,如精神障碍、严重抑郁或其他情绪障碍。
作者通过对儿童(迷你儿童)的微型神经精神病访谈,对父母和儿童进行精神病学访谈,以排除精神障碍。通过儿童和青少年精神病学、精神病学系、印度尼西亚大学的部门,迷你儿童已经被翻译成印度尼西亚语言。
为了完成样本量,我们选取了30所小学按比例随机抽样分布在雅加达,但最终只有27所小学参与了这项研究。研究对象分别来自27所学校。我们以plt;0.05为参考意义。
工具
工作记忆评分量表(WMRS)用于测定5-11岁儿童的工作记忆缺陷。它是由Alloway开发的,由20个问题组成。这可以被老师和其他专业教育工作者使用,他们在教室里教孩子至少一个月。每个问题都有答案;不典型,偶尔,相当典型,或非常典型。
2011年,WMRS用印度尼西亚语进行了验证。cut off值是根据T-score确定的,分为2类;(1)6-9岁儿童(敏感性=0.161,speficity=0.674), 10-12岁儿童(敏感性=0.186,speficity=0.929)。T评分gt;60显示中度工作记忆缺陷,T评分gt;70显示严重的工作记忆缺失。这位教师被要求填写印尼版的《WMRS》。Cronbachs alpha值为0.959,得分为20。项目之间的相关性为0.189到0.777。采用Wilcoxon-rank测试的测试复测信度测试表明第一个月和第三个月的WMRS评估没有显著性差异(p=0.950)。我们还获得了学生和家长的人口数据。
在参加这项研究之前,家长和老师被要求完成一份知情同意书。所有的数据都是用SPSS的研究生版本来计算和分析的。
结果
在第一阶段的研究中,我们样本的年龄范围(n=423)为5-15岁,平均(标准差)年龄为9.34(1.78)。男女学生的比例是6:5。13.7%的儿童(n=58)有学习困难。学习困难学生的平均年龄为9.58(1.76)。在这58名学习困难的学生中,34名(8.04%)有工作记忆缺失。学习困难和工作记忆障碍儿童的平均年龄为9.76(1.81),男孩和女孩的比例没有差异(p=0.78)。
在病例对照研究中,病例与对照组在年龄或性别上没有显著差异。病例组年龄在7-14岁之间,对照组年龄在6-13岁之间。在案例与对照组中,wmr的平均值有显著的差异,在学习困难的儿童中,工作记忆缺陷的几率比为7.0(2=35.96;p lt; 0.001)。因此,与没有工作记忆缺陷的孩子相比,有工作记忆缺陷的孩子在学习上有困难的风险是孩子的7倍。
结论
在这项研究中,雅加达6-12岁的小学生中有13.7%的人有学习障碍,8.04%的学生有学习障碍。这些结果与之前在儿童发展和儿童精神科诊所的小学生学习困难的研究结果有很大的不同,后者的患病率为28%。可以理解的是,来到诊所的儿童已经有心理健康问题或精神疾病,这些问题影响了他们的日常工作,包括他们的学习能力和社会交往能力。
研究结果表明,小学生学习困难是一个严重的心理健康问题。学习上的困难导致了痛苦,经常被学校开除,因为孩子们不能满足班级的期望。父母报告说,这些孩子懒惰或不聪明,经常被贴上“naugthy学生”的标签。事实上,这些学生中有很多都有良好的智力和能力。父母在处理这种情况时通常会感到沮丧,因为他们没有很好地了解如何处理它,常常使问题得不到解决。
这项研究显示,仅凭智力功能无法预测学生是否能学好。似乎工作记忆缺陷在学习困难中起到了重要作用,并且导致了学校教育的失败。应该通过对被认为有学习障碍的儿童的工作记忆进行评估,从而采取行动帮助这些儿童继续他们的教育。
本研究有一些重要的局限性,如不包括可能影响学习能力和工作记忆缺陷的其他危险因素,例如营养状况、学习方式,以及可能影响学生学习能力的家庭环境。此外,本研究中使用的学习困难的定义可能不是一个普遍的定义,只适用于本研究。根据DSM-IV-TR标准,仅使用临床精神病学访谈,排除智力缺陷,但未检查智商,这可能也影响病例和对照组的样本选择。
另一方面,这项研究是第一个试图确定印尼小学学龄儿童的学习困难和工作记忆缺陷之间关系的研究。此外,该研究中研究对象的数量相当大,而且是随机选择的,可代表印度尼西亚雅加达或其他大城市的小学生。
研究发现,工作记忆缺陷是影响儿童学习能力的重要风险因素。家长和老师应该认识到这种情况,并学习一些方法来帮助克服这些困难。
外文文献出处: Learning Difficulties and Working Memory Deficits among Primary School Students in Jakarta, Indonesia.[J]. Wiguna Tjhin,Setyawati Wr Noorhana,Kaligis Fransiska,Belfer Myron L. Clinical Psychopharmacology and Neuroscience. 2013(2)
外文文献原文:
Learning Difficulties and Working Memory Deficits among Primary School Students in Jakarta, Indonesia
原文作者 Wiguna Tjhin
专业 小学教育 学生姓名 姚颜秀
指导老师姓名:张 羽
Abstract
Objective
There are multiple possible etiologies for learning difficulties in children. There is growing evidence that many students identified as having learning difficulties have significant working memory deficits. To determine, in a sample of primary school students in Jakarta, Indonesia, the prevalence of learning difficulties and learning difficulties co-morbid with working memory deficits.
Methods
Subjects (N=423) were recruited via proportional random sampling from 27 primary schools. The first stage was a cross-sectional study of these students, while the second stage was a case-control study comparing all students with learning difficulties and working memory deficits with controls matched by school type, grade level, and gender.
Results
Among the students, whose mean age was 9.34 years (1.78), 13.7% had a learning difficulty, while 8.04% had a learning difficulty with working memory deficit. The odds ratio of comorbid working memory deficit (in the face of a learning difficulty) was 7.0 (chi;2= 35.96, plt;0.001).
Conclusion
Learning difficulties and comorbid working memory deficits were relativel
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外文文献出处: Learning Difficulties and Working Memory Deficits among Primary School Students in Jakarta, Indonesia.[J]. Wiguna Tjhin,Setyawati Wr Noorhana,Kaligis Fransiska,Belfer Myron L. Clinical Psychopharmacology and Neuroscience. 2013(2)
Learning Difficulties and Working Memory Deficits among Primary School Students in Jakarta, Indonesia
原文作者 Wiguna Tjhin
Abstract
Objective
There are multiple possible etiologies for learning difficulties in children. There is growing evidence that many students identified as having learning difficulties have significant working memory deficits. To determine, in a sample of primary school students in Jakarta, Indonesia, the prevalence of learning difficulties and learning difficulties co-morbid with working memory deficits.
Methods
Subjects (N=423) were recruited via proportional random sampling from 27 primary schools. The first stage was a cross-sectional study of these students, while the second stage was a case-control study comparing all students with learning difficulties and working memory deficits with controls matched by school type, grade level, and gender.
Results
Among the students, whose mean age was 9.34 years (1.78), 13.7% had a learning difficulty, while 8.04% had a learning difficulty with working memory deficit. The odds ratio of comorbid working memory deficit (in the face of a learning difficulty) was 7.0 (chi;2= 35.96, plt;0.001).
Conclusion
Learning difficulties and comorbid working memory deficits were relatively common among primary school students. Efforts should be made to identify these students and provide timely assistance, in order to optimize their educational success and mental health outcomes.
Keywords: Learning difficulties, Working memory, Primary school, Student
INTRODUCTION
Multiple brain processes are involved in learning, such that disruptions in any one process may result in a learning difficulty.1,2) Mental health professionals are often involved in caring for children and adolescents with learning difficulties, given the significant impact that these conditions have on academic achievement, self-esteem, and overall functioning. While there appear to be differences (across countries) in the prevalence rates of learning difficulties, these conditions are among the most prevalent of mental health problems in children. For example, in the United States of America, the prevalence rate of all learning difficulties among school-age children is approximately 6-10%.3) Unfortunately, there is no valid data on learning difficulty prevalence in Indonesia, one of the most populous nations in the world.
Learning diffculties are defined as a significant discrepancy-not otherwise explained by physical or sensory impairments-between the childs intellectual functioning and academic performance.3-6) While several studies have identified genetic factors, sensorimotor system integration impairments, and prematurity as risk factors for learning disorders, there is no single known cause.
Recent studies have focused on the role of working memory in learning difficulties.6-8) These studies have found that (1) working memory is an important predictor of learning ability, and (2) working memory assessment can be helpful in determining learning capability; perhaps more so than the intelligence quotient (IQ) scores, which only indicate intelligence level.8,9)
Working memory is the ability to store and manipulate information within a short time period. It enables one to pay attention, remember, and act according to immediately received information. In contrast to short term memory, working memory requires information storing and processing ability, while short term memory only requires information retention. Working memory is an important component of executive functioning and is believed to be fundamental to problem solving.10) Thus, working memory is essential to the acquisition of new knowledge and skills. Anatomically, working memory is regulated by the frontal lobe.8,9)
Working memory is essential to optimal completion of classroom activities, including those that require memorization of instructions and those that require information processing and endurance.8-10) Children with working memory deficit may have poor attention and easy distractibility (not necessarily with hyperactivity) and low academic performance in relation to their peers.9-11) They are at risk for dropping out of school prematurely and failing to achieve their potential in life.12)
Alloway et al.9) stated that intelligence and memory are two important components of learning. As reviewed, many studies have shown that, at the age of 5 years, working memory may be a better predictor of learning capability in the next 6 years and beyond, than intelligence. Olive13) mentioned that the limitation of working memory affected the ability to read because of the lack ofsynchonization between maintaning and processing information.
Wiguna et al.14) in a pilot study of elementary students at a Child Development and Child Psychiatry Outpatient Clinic, identified 28% of the children as having a learning difficulty but did not differentiate whether or not they had any working memory deficit. In a study led by Durham University, 10% of 3,000 children had working memory deficit problems that seriously impacted learning capability.10)
Up to this point, studies on the relationship between intelligence level and academic achievement have not definitively indicated the optimal management of learning difficulties because working memory function has not been considered. For example, during writing, visual working memory plays an important role as it stores the orthographic information of already written words, as an aid to catching spelling, or
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