Effects of trade cost on the textile and apparel market: evidence from Asian countries
Wanling Chena, Chi Keung Marco Laub, David Boansic and Mehmet Huseyin Bilgind
ABSTRACT
Global textile and apparel industry has since the 1950s been subjected to various forms of trade policy measures. Well noted among these are tariffs and non-tariff barriers(NTB)/policy indicators. Understanding the dynamics in such relevant policy indicators and the implications they yield for trade is a vital step toward informing relevant policy formulation and agribusiness investment decisions. With the textile and apparel industry being the primary grounds on which development in most Asian countries is founded, we for the first time in literature assess effects of various trade cost indicators on global textile and apparel imports from 37 Asian countries using a lsquo;cost-incorporatedrsquo; gravity model for the period 1988–2004. Estimates from this study affirm theory-based associations between trade, distance, cultural linkage, tariffs, and non-tariffs barriers. We however discovered quite interesting associations regarding effects of tariff increments and existence of NTB. Although both are primarily imposed/instilled to restrict trade flow, effect of tariff increments was consistently negative across all models, but that for NTB was consistently positive, although significant only in the case of apparel imports. Plausible reasons behind the implications for tariffs and NTB are elaborated on in this article. A keen discovery from this study, however, is that imports of apparels are more responsive than textile imports to dynamics in various trade-related cost, geographic and economic indicators.
KEYWORDS:Textiles and apparels; gravity model; tariff barriers;non-tariff barriers; exports; asian economies
1.Introduction
The textile and apparel industry remains a solid and relevant industry for economic development in many developing and developed countries worldwide, especially in Asian countries – major players in world textile and apparel production and trade. In Asia, textile and apparel production and trade serve as a major source of employment for millions of inhabitants, a source of export earnings, and a major contributor to gross domestic prod- uct (GDP). In Bangladesh for example, the textile and apparel industry accounts for approximately 86% of exports from the country and employs at least 4 million textile workers in 5000 registered textile and garment factories (Drsquo;Ambrogio, 2014). The industry contributes about 4 and 11%, respectively, to Indiarsquo;s GDP and export earnings, and employs over 45 million workers (making it the second largest provider of employment after agri- culture) (Drsquo;Ambrogio, 2014). Beside these, the industry accounts, respectively, for 80% and 15% of total exports from Cambodia and Vietnam, provides employment for at least 15 million people in Pakistan (thus, about 30% of the countryrsquo;s workforce), 2.2 million people in Vietnam, and 1.1 million people in Indonesia (Drsquo;Ambrogio, 2014). Given these and many other economic roles played by the industry, global political, economic, and major policy adjustments made in the industry stand yielding major implications for development in majority of the Asian countries.
Globally, the textile and apparel industry has since the 1950s been subjected to various forms of trade policy measures, yield- ing intra and inter-regional, as well as inter-continental impli- cations for trade. Understanding dynamics in policy measures implemented so far and the implications thereof for trade is a vital step toward informing relevant policy formulation and agribusiness investment decisions. Trends in global textile and apparel imports have basically been steered by voluntary export restrains for cotton textile products to the US and Europe (Liu amp; Sun, 2004; Raffaelli amp; Jenkins, 1995; Tan, 2005), and the use of tariffs and trade liberalization measures. Liberalization of trade in the industry was founded on a gradual phasing-out of quotas between January 1995 and January 2005, as well as the removal in 2009 of restrictions in the Memorandum of Understanding signed between the U.S. (worldrsquo;s leading importer) and China (worldrsquo;s leading exporter). In spite of the increase in global imports of textile and apparel products during the transition period and thereafter, not all organizations/regions/countries benefited from such developments. Some exporters from the developed world (including Canada, European Union, the United States, Japan, Hong Kong China, and Singapore) gen- erally found themselves on the losing side (being net-importers in the process, based on data from the ERS1 Bilateral Fiber and Textile Trade Database), while, as shown in Figure 1, low-cost
producers like China, India, Indonesia, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Thailand, Macau, and all other South Asia and North Asia found themselves on the winning side.
Instilled with a primary purpose of restricting trade flow, tariff and non-tariff barriers (NTB) are noted in literature to yield diverse implications and are in most cases different in their effectiveness in addressing issues for which they are levied/instilled (Blonigen, Liebman, Pierce, amp; Wilson, 2012). Trade restriction based on tariff is primarily achieved through price and cost-incentives which favor producers and government in the country that instills them, at the expense of consumers and importers (being made worse- off), yielding a consequent adverse implication for exporters in the foreign country. Thus, on the production side, tariff-based measures are instilled to improve the position of domestic pro- ducers relative to their foreign counterparts (Coughlin, Chrystal, amp; Wood, 1988), while rents accrue to the government
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贸易成本对纺织品和服装市场的影响:来自亚洲国家的证据
陈万玲a, 刘志强bdavid boansic 和Mehmet Huseyin Bilgind
摘要:
自20世纪50年代以来,全球纺织服装业一直受到各种形式的贸易政策措施的影响。其中值得注意的是关税和非关税壁垒(NTB)/政策指标。了解这些相关政策指标的动态及其对贸易产生的影响是向相关政策制定和农业企业投资决策提供信息的重要一步。随着纺织品和服装行业成为大多数亚洲国家发展的主要基础,我们首次在文献中评估各种贸易成本指标对来自37个亚洲国家的全球纺织品和服装进口的影响,采用“成本合并”1988 - 2004年期间的引力模型。该研究的估计证实了基于理论的贸易,距离,文化联系,关税和非关税壁垒之间的关联。然而,我们发现了关于关税增量和非关税壁垒存在的影响的非常有趣的联想。尽管两者都主要是强制/灌输以限制贸易流量,但所有模型的关税增量效应始终为负,但对于NTB而言,这一点始终是积极的,尽管仅在服装进口方面具有重要意义。本文详细阐述了对关税和非关税壁垒的影响背后的合理原因。然而,这项研究的一个敏锐发现是,在各种与贸易相关的成本,地理和经济指标中,服装进口比纺织品进口更具响应性。
关键词:纺织品和服装;引力模型;关税壁垒;非关税壁垒;出口;亚洲经济体
- 介绍
纺织服装业仍然是全球许多发展中国家和发达国家经济发展的坚实和相关产业,特别是在亚洲国家 - 世界纺织品和服装生产和贸易的主要参与者。在亚洲,纺织品和服装生产和贸易是数百万居民的主要就业来源,是出口收入的来源,也是国内生产总值(GDP)的主要贡献者。例如,在孟加拉国,纺织品和服装业约占该国出口的86%,并在5000家注册纺织服装厂雇用至少400万纺织工人(DAmbrogio,2014).该行业分别对印度的GDP和出口收入贡献了4%和11%,雇佣了超过4500万工人(使其成为仅次于农业的第二大就业机会)(DAmbrogio,2014).除此之外,该行业分别占柬埔寨和越南出口总额的80%和15%,为巴基斯坦至少1500万人提供就业机会(因此,约占全国劳动力的30%),越南有220万人和印度尼西亚的110万人(DAmbrogio,2014).鉴于该行业发挥的这些和许多其他经济作用,该行业所做的全球政治,经济和重大政策调整对大多数亚洲国家的发展产生了重大影响。
在全球范围内,自20世纪50年代以来,纺织品和服装行业一直受到各种形式的贸易政策措施的影响,产生了对贸易的区域内和区域间以及洲际间的影响。了解迄今为止实施的政策措施的动态及其对贸易的影响是向相关政策制定和农业企业投资决策提供信息的重要一步。全球纺织品和服装进口趋势基本上受到棉纺织品对美国和欧洲的自愿出口限制的控制(Liu&Sun,2004; Raffaelli amp; Jenkins, 1995;谭,2005),以及关税和贸易自由化措施的使用。该行业贸易自由化的基础是1995年1月至2005年1月逐步取消配额,以及2009年取消美国(世界主要进口国)与中国(世界领先的)之间签署的谅解备忘录的限制。主要出口商)。尽管在过渡期间及之后全球纺织品和服装产品的进口增加,但并非所有组织/地区/国家都从这种发展中受益。来自发达国家(包括加拿大,欧盟,美国,日本,中国香港和新加坡)的一些出口商普遍认为自己处于亏损状态(根据ERS双边纤维和纺织品贸易数据库数据,在此过程中是净进口商),同时,如图1所示,低成本生产商如中国,印度,印度尼西亚,巴基斯坦,孟加拉国,泰国,澳门以及所有其他南亚和北亚的生产国都处于获胜的一面。
主要目的是限制贸易流量,关税和非关税壁垒(NTB)在文献中被注意到产生不同的影响,并且在大多数情况下它们在解决它们被征收/灌输的问题上的有效性不同(Blonigen,Liebman) ,皮尔斯和威尔逊,2012).基于关税的贸易限制主要通过价格和成本激励来实现支持那些灌输它们的国家的生产者和政府,牺牲消费者和进口商(使其变得更糟),从而对外国的出口商产生相应的不利影响。因此,在生产方面,灌输基于关税的措施,以改善国内生产者相对于其国外生产者的地位(Coughlin,Chrystal,&Wood,1988)虽然通过对光顾外国/竞争产品的消费者和进口商征收的税收给政府带来了租金。
就非关税壁垒而言,进口商通常仅限于他们可以在国内市场上进口和销售的特定产品/产品组的最大产品数量或数量。这种限制促使国内生产者扩大/加强当前生产,并减少由于减少外国产品供应以满足消费者需求而导致的消费,从而引发外国出口商的价格和收入增加。因此,与关税制下的政府租金产生相反,经济租金通常在配额制度下转移给出口商(Tan,2005).鉴于关税和非关税壁垒在某种程度上都是贸易限制这一事实,他们的提名相关性更多地取决于他们各自的影响,而不是他们的使用。但总的来说,这两项措施都被视为福利减少(Anderson,Kurzweil,Martin,Sandri,&Valenzuela,2008).
由于关税和NTB在20世纪70年代末至90年代初期对纺织品和服装贸易的普遍福利减少影响,世界贸易组织(WTO)通过其纺织品和服装协定(ATC)下令拆除1995年1月至2005年1月期间。在正常情况下,这应该为出口国增加生产和出口铺平了道路,这些国家将美国和其他主要净进口国如欧盟作为出口目的地。然而,在完全消除这些障碍后,情况并非如此。世界上大多数出口商最初目睹了不断增长的趋势,他们在2005年完全拆除后开始观察到大幅下降。
在逐步取消对纺织品和服装贸易的限制之后,亚洲的反应各不相同。以美国进口的纺织品和服装为例,如图2所示虽然美国纺织品和服装产品的进口总额从1989年的27亿美元(多纤维安排(MFA))增加到2005年的890亿美元(逐步拆除),但这一显着增长主要是由于东盟社区(美国),特别是少数主要亚洲出口国(即中国,越南,印度,孟加拉国和巴基斯坦)出口的积极趋势。这些国家继续引导美国纺织品和服装产品进口的积极趋势,导致2013年的价值进一步增加至2013年的约1050亿美元。尽管东盟社区发挥了作用,但前述另一方面,亚洲国家,特别是日本,韩国,中国台湾,香港和新加坡等亚洲发达国家的价值和份额持续下降。
美国从香港进口的数量从1989年的3686,288,942美元减少至2013年的28,578,790美元。这导致香港的股份在上述年度间从12.22减少至0.23%。
一些研究人员,包括Vollrath,Gehlhar和MacDonald(一些研究人员)认为,特定经济共同体,次区域或地区内各国对贸易增强措施的异质反应(2004)建立的网络,基础设施和地理位置的差异。据我们所知,到目前为止,亚洲国家纺织品和服装行业的研究都没有做出努力来捕捉关税和NTB(贸易成本效应)的作用。
MFA可能在指导观察到的趋势方面发挥了作用。考虑到经济单位/代理人在接触各种经济和政策压力因素后对其恢复能力的限制/限制或对激励措施作出反应这一事实,忽视了MFA和逐步淘汰期间关税和NTB的潜在作用可能起到了作用。在观察到的亚洲国家的趋势肯定不是一个选择(考虑到它们在全球纺织和服装行业中发挥的主要作用)。为了补充迄今为止全球类似问题的研究工作和调查结果,并弥合相关的信息差距,我们首次使用从世界银行收集的年度数据来评估贸易成本对37个亚洲国家纺织品和服装市场的影响。改革前期间(1988-2004)的贸易和生产数据库。“成本合并”引力模型用于确定贸易成本对所涵盖国家的纺织品和服装进口的影响。
在本文的其余部分安排如下:下一节将提供有关纺织品和服装贸易决定因素的文献综述。部分3 简要介绍了重力模型的数据来源和计量经济学方法,强调了贸易成本的作用。实证结果见章节4,章节5该论文结束。
表1.美国纺织品和服装进口总额中的区域份额
类 |
区域/国家 |
1990–1994 |
1995–1999 (%) |
2001–2005 (%) |
2009–2013 (%) |
地区 |
东盟 |
12.960 |
12.773 |
14.467 |
18.129 |
嘿嘿 |
18.431 |
30.598 |
28.542 |
15.641 |
|
中美洲自由贸易协议 |
8.339 |
12.407 |
11.764 |
7.697 |
|
经合组织 |
20.686 |
18.447 |
15.428 |
6.787 |
|
桥中 |
1.609 |
1.267 |
0.558 |
0.686 |
|
北美自由贸易协定 |
6.093 |
15.344 |
14.260 |
6.144 |
|
e28 |
9.135 |
7.782 |
6.117 |
3.609 |
|
撒哈拉以南 |
0.753 |
0.899 |
1.758 |
0.934 |
|
发展中国家 |
中国 |
12.915 |
10.351 |
16.273 |
40.133 |
马来西亚 |
1.883 |
1.403 |
0.973 |
0.520 |
|
越南 |
0.002 |
0.050 |
2.316 |
7.323 |
|
印度 |
3.320 |
3.743 |
4.355 |
5.840 |
|
孟加拉国 |
1.978 |
2.701 |
2.716 |
4.564 |
|
印度尼西亚 |
2.729 |
3.221 |
3.303 |
5.075 |
|
巴基斯坦 |
1.762 |
2.267 |
2.949 |
3.165 |
|
泰国 |
2.779 |
3.178 |
2.813 |
1.444 |
|
菲律宾 |
3.704 |
3.537 |
2.597 |
1.212 |
|
哥斯达黎加 |
1.664 |
1.488 |
0.788 |
0.172 |
|
墨西哥 |
3.555 |
10.920 |
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