中国水污染与防治研究
原文作者 Tan Lu 单位 School of Economics,Yangtze University
摘要：近年来，中国的水污染问题正在日趋严重。同时，由于水质的下降，频繁的污染事故，饮用水安全和水资源短缺日益突出。但是，水污染不能得到有效地控制。要清除潜在日趋严重的水环境的因素，要用产权理论进行分析污染行为和污染控制机构的虚拟财产权利的外部效应，然后对水环境污染严重的内在原因进行讨论。最后，对水体污染控制措施提出明确要求。
关键词：水污染； 外部效应； 产权控制；中国
引言
随着中国经济的快速发展，水资源短缺已经成为制约目前中国经济可持续发展的一个关键因素，但在中国大量的水被污染了，所以水污染也不容忽视。根据水利部提供的数据，水污染在中国已经非常严重，从80年代优质的III水所占的比例80%锐减到目前的29%。与此同时，越来越多的生活用水超过国家标准，因为在中国超过一半的城市的地下水已被污染。如果这个问题不能尽快解决，这将极大地影响中国城市和农村居民的居住环境和经济社会的可持续发展。
1中国水污染现状
1.1水质迅速恶化，中国政府历来更注重对环境的污染，并投入了大量的人力，物力和财力资源，解决环境污染，特别是水污染，但环境污染的控制效果并不好。城市功能区与水质达标的比例降低，超过80%的河流受到污染。目前，中国约有3.2亿农村居民饮用不安全的水，35.6%的饮用水源没有规范标准。其中，44％的河流，77％的湖泊，23％的水库没有达到标准。在中国的1073个乡镇监测点中，25%的地表饮用水源水质不能达到标准。其他地下水源遭到严重污染，115个监控点的地下水源35％的水质不能达到标准。在中国，不到11%的居民能够喝上满足中国卫生标准的放心水，地表水富营养化和地下水水质的恶化频繁发生。此外，65％的人饮用了含氟，砷或其它有毒物质的不干净的水。同时，2亿人喝自来水，7000万人饮用了含有高浓度的氟的水; 3000万人饮用了含有高浓度的硝酸盐的水; 1.1亿人饮用了高硬度水。更为严重的是，在中国几乎所有的湖泊都受到了严重污染。此外，七大水系中黄河，长江和松花江水质出现下降的趋势。河流和湖泊的恶性污染事故屡有发生。水体的纳污能力已经达到了极限。
1.2由于水体污染控制不力，在各级政府和环境部门的共同努力，于2010年已在中国建立了2003个污水处理厂，每天可处理超过90000000立方米的污水，并在国家政策规划和省会城市都专门设计了污水处理厂。中国政府更加注重水体污染控制并取得相当大的进步，但水体污染问题仍然严重。而且，只有一小部分的污水被处理，污水的生产速度远远超过处理能力的增加;目前的污水处理厂运行成本高，效率低。到2010年底,106个行政指定城市没有污水处理厂，主要分布在中国东北部，中部和西部。约65％的污水在中国县级城市没有得到处理，而95％以上的城镇没有污水处理设施。
1.3中国是世界上浪费用水情况最为严重的国家之一，在农业生产中浪费了大量的水资源。目前，传统的农业灌溉方法，例如河流运输灌溉方式仍广泛的在中国使用，但是超过一半的灌溉水在运输过程中流失，所以只有40％的灌溉水能够有效地得到利用，利用率还不到发达国家的50％。由于纺织工业技术与设备，中国工业用水量比发达国家高10－20倍。目前，每万元单位产值用水量是中国为103立方米，而美国是8立方米，日本是6立方米。中国工业用水重复利用率仅为55%。而在发达国家达到了75％ - 85％。另外，水的浪费也是在日常生活中非常严重的。据统计，北京市清洁车用水量相当于一个昆明湖或六个北海的水储存量。同时，在北京市一年内有36万吨的水被泄露出去。
2水污染严重的原因
2.1地方政府片面强调国内生产总值，但忽视环境治理。为提高国内生产总值，地方政府投入大量人力，物力和财力资源，去支持国内生产总值增长明显的项目。水污染对当地居民造成损害，而损害是隐性存在的，不被人们所知觉的，所以如果上级政府不下拨资金，地方政府就不进行污水处理。因此，产生水体污染比水污染控制速度更快。在未来的五年中，中国城市污水处理需要投资7000亿元，中国的城市污水处理的投资，但是目前的投资严重不足。
2.2城市污水比农村污水更为关注，在城市污水处理处于初始阶段，而农村生活污水。事实上，造成农放任不管。事实上，农田灌溉造成的污水超过城市污水。农业肥料利用率低于25%，大量的含氮和磷的农业水排入江河湖泊，导致水体富营养化。据统计，96%的村庄没有排水沟渠和污水处理系统，因为没有人负责垃圾收集和处理，所以在89％的村庄随处可见随机处理的垃圾。
2.3污水控制系统中虚拟财产权的有效控制，在中国，超过85%的城市污水处理厂是由政府建造和管理，导致污水控制系统中的虚拟财产权和权责不明，这些污水控制制度具有技术创新力不足，管理松散，成本高的特性。政府的拨款并不能维持污水处理系统的正常运营，以至于它们在大部分时间内处于停工状态。因此，污水处理行业形成了“政府管理的污水处理厂排放—政府产品的购买—政府连续污水流量”的无限循环。
2.4水污染的外部影响导致污染行为的失控。水体污染及其控制具有典型的外部效应。也就是说，一个企业排放的污水给其他相关的经济实体带来损失，但企业不承担损失的责任。此外，企业水污染控制造福于其他经济实体，但他们无法获得任何回报，这就造成了成本和收益的不对称性。基于利润最大化的承诺，大部分企业随意排放污水，它们中只有少数一部分对污水进行控制处理，以致于环境不能够承受污水的排放。
3水污染防治措施
3.1改变地方政府的绩效评价体系。长期以来，地方政府绩效评价的重点放在经济增长上，所以地方政府过分强调国内生产总值的增长，而忽视了环境和资源成本。此外，环境保护和防治的投入还是不足的，地方的监管力度也不强。因此，有必要对地方政府的评价指标体系进行调整，建立生态绩效评价，保护水资源的影响，防治与监管应作为一项重要的评价指标，从而使政府能够统一社会、经济和政治的职能。克服政府在工程项目审批和公司监管的短视行为，消除暗箱操作。
3.2引入多元化的融资体系，解决污水控制系统中虚拟财产的权利。污水处理的根本出路在于产业化，市场化。更特别,在整个社会的资本和资源应该用于补充政府在污水处理的投资，企业单位可以适用于提高机构的效率。代替投资和经营污水处理，政府应该使污水处理工业化和完善产业政策，提供及时周到的服务，代表人民群众来监督和规范污水处理企业的行为，并利用私人资源，使污水处理企业成为具有明确产权、权力和责任的现代企业单位。同时，政府应鼓励企业在城市和村庄投资污水处理厂，例如购买建成污水处理厂和投资新建的污水处理厂，政府并为他们提供优惠条件和支持。
3.3改革排污收费制度促进外部效应的内在化。中国于1982年开始实施排污收费制度，建立了一个完整的排污收费制度，对企业的污染治理和资金筹集起着重要的作用。但目前排污收费制度存在许多问题，并且难以控制水污染。首先，排污费低，所以多数企业宁愿缴纳排污费而不是防治水源污染。第二，没有足够的费用。“费用”不是强制性的，所以，企业要拒绝支付排污费也是很常见的。第三,收集费用成本高。第四，排污费只适用于大，中度污染来源，但并不适用于小型乡镇企业，因此大部分小污染源不缴纳排污费。鉴于上述排污收费制度的这些缺点，有必要提高污染排放权交易制度。排污许可证制度的使用是产权制度的创新，使排污权成为企业的财产权利之一。也就是说，通过排污许可证的授予和市场交易，排污指标成为企业的财产权利，企业不仅可以节省成本，而且获得的利润，如果他们节约排污许可证，由此内化外部效应。1988年，中国尝试实行排污许可证交易制度在18个城市启动，如上海、北京、天津、沈阳、徐州和常州。1990年，中国尝试实施16个城市的大气污染物排放许可证制度。然而,存在许多问题,排污许可证的交易系统,如有关排污交易政策和法律滞后,缺乏一个系统的排污权交易市场等等,这还需要进一步讨论。
3.4更加重视农村水污染问题。一方面，需要大力发展生态农业，减少农业生产过程中的水体污染和浪费。与此同时，要减少化肥和农药的施用，提高其利用率，鼓励农民使用天然肥料和秸秆还田。要用精确的社会生态学农业生产技术来代替传统的粗放式农业生产技术，提高农业生产效率。此外，要加强对大型畜禽养殖场综合治理，推广粪便综合处理来自畜牧业，鼓励农民建立生态工程相结合的畜牧业和种植业。在另一方面，需要加快污水处理设施建设，加强污水处理设备的重复利用，更加安全地处理污水。将污水处理与农业生产相结合的生态工程，不仅可以降低污水处理成本，而且还可以提高土壤肥力。
参考文献
［1］ XU ZW，WEN XQ．Industrial efficiency of China restrained by water resources and water environment-An empirical study based on provincial data during 2000－2010［J］.Contemporary Finance ＆ Economics,2013( 10) : 86-87.( in Chinese).
［2］WANG RH.Analysis of rural water pollution and suggestions［J］.Resources Economization ＆ Environment Protection,2013( 8) :115.( in Chinese).
［3］SUNWM.Analysis of water condition and safety in China［J］.Water Conservancy Science and Technology and Economy,2013,19( 6):94-95.( in Chinese).
外文文献出处：Meteorological and Environmental Research , 气象与环境研究(英文版), 编辑部邮箱, 2014年01期 P66-68
附外文文献原文
REVIEW ARTICLE
Study on Water Pollution and Control in China
Tan Lu
School of Economics,Yangtze University. Jingzhou 434023,China
Abstract
In recent years,water pollution has become increasingly serious in China.Meanwhile,decrease of water bodies in quality,frequent pollution incidents,safety of drinking water and water shortage have become prominent day by day.However,water pollution can not be controlled effectively.To clear underlying reasons for increasingly worsening water environment,the external effects of pollution behavior and fictitious property right of pollution control bodies were analyzed using property right theory,and then internal reasons for serious water pollution were discussed. Finally,control measures of water pollution were put forward．
Key words: Water pollution; External effect;Control of property rights; China
Introduction
With the rapid development of Chinas economy，water shortage has become a key factor limiting sustainable development of Chinas economy at present,but large amounts of water has been polluted in China,so water pollution can not be ignored. According to data provided by the Ministry of Water Resources,water pollution is very serious in China,and the proportion of water superior to Gra
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附外文文献原文
REVIEW ARTICLE
Study on Water Pollution and Control in China
Tan Lu
School of Economics,Yangtze University. Jingzhou 434023,China
Abstract
In recent years,water pollution has become increasingly serious in China.Meanwhile,decrease of water bodies in quality,frequent pollution incidents,safety of drinking water and water shortage have become prominent day by day.However,water pollution can not be controlled effectively.To clear underlying reasons for increasingly worsening water environment,the external effects of pollution behavior and fictitious property right of pollution control bodies were analyzed using property right theory,and then internal reasons for serious water pollution were discussed. Finally,control measures of water pollution were put forward．
Key words: Water pollution; External effect;Control of property rights; China
Introduction
With the rapid development of Chinas economy，water shortage has become a key factor limiting sustainable development of Chinas economy at present,but large amounts of water has been polluted in China,so water pollution can not be ignored. According to data provided by the Ministry of Water Resources,water pollution is very serious in China,and the proportion of water superior to Grade III increases from 80% in the 1980s to present 29% .Meanwhile,there has been more and more domestic water exceeding the national standard,because groundwater has become contaminated in over half of cities in China.If this problem can not be solved as quickly as possible,it will greatly affect Urban and rural residents living environment as well as sustainable development of Chinas economy and society.
1 Present situation of water pollution in China
1.1 Rapid deterioration of water quality.The Chinese government always pays more attention to environmental pollution and invests a lot of manpower,material and financial resources in the solution to environmental pollution,especially water contamination,but the control effect of environmental pollution is not good.The proportion of urban functional areas with water quality reaching the standard decreases,and more than 80% of rivers have been polluted.At present,about 0.32 billion rural people drink unsafe water in China,and 35.6% of drinking water sources have no standard functions.Among them,44% ,77% and 23% of rivers,lakes and reservoirs can not reach the standard.Among 1073 monitored towns in China,water quality of 25% of surface drinking water sources can not reach the standard.Other groundwater sources suffer serious pollution,and water quality of 35% of 115 monitored groundwater sources can not reach the standard.In China,less than 11% of peoples drink safe water meeting Chinas health standards,and surface water eutrophication and gradual deterioration of groundwater quality occur frequently.In addition,65% of people drink unclean water containing fluorine,arsenic or other toxic substances.Meanwhile,0.2 billion people drink running water;70 million people drink water containing high concentrations of fluorine;30 million people drink water containing high concentrations of nitrate;0.11 billion people drink high-hardness water.More seriously,almost all lakes in China have been polluted seriously.Moreover,water quality of seven major river systems like the Yellow River,Yangtze River and Songhua River shows a decrease trend.Malignant pollution incidents of rivers and lakes happened frequently.The pollutant carrying capacity of water bodies has reached their limits.
1.2 Ineffective control of water pollution Through the joint efforts of governments at all levels and environmental departments,2003 sewage treatment plants have been built in China by 2010,which can treat more than 90 million m3 of sewage every day,and both specifically-designed cities in the state plan and capital cities have sewage treatment plants.The central government pays more attention to the control of water pollution and make considerable process，but water pollution is still serious.Moreover,only a small area of sewage has been treated,and sewage production is far faster than the increase of treatment capacity,current sewage treatment plants have high operating cost and low efficiency.By the end of 2010,106 administratively designated cities have no sewage treatment plants,mainly distributing in the northeast,middle and west of China.Sewage in about 65% of counties in China has not been treatment,while more than 95% of towns have no sewage treatment measures.
1.3 Serious water waste China,a country using maximum,is one of countries with most serious water waste.Water consumption is large in agriculture which wastes large amounts of water.At present,traditional agricultural irrigation methods like water transportation by an earth canal and broad irrigation are still used in China,and half of irrigation water is lost during the transportation process,so only 40% of irrigation water can be utilized effectively,not accounting for 50% of that of a developed country.Due to legging industrial technologies and facilities,industrial water consumption of China is 10-20 times more than that of a developed country.Presently,water consumption per unit output value of ten thousand yuan is 103 m3 in China,8 m3 in America and 6 m3 in Japan.The ratio of industrial water reuse is only 55% in China,but 75%- 85% in developed countries.In addition,water waste is also serious in daily life.According to statistics,water consumption for cleaning cars in Beijing City during a year is equivalent to water storage of more than one Kunming Lake or six the North Sea.Meanwhile,0.36 million t of water is leaked in Beijing City during a year.
2 Reasons for serious water pollution
2.1 Local governments put one-sided emphasis
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