On DifferenceTranslation Of E-C Plant Metaphors外文翻译资料

 2022-12-21 16:37:31

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Extracted from Metaphors we live by, which is written by George Lakoff and Mark Johnson. Lakoff is an American cognitive linguist and philosopher, best known for his thesis that lives of individuals are significantly influenced by the central metaphors they use to explain complex phenomena. Johnson is Professor of Liberal Arts and Sciences in the Department of Philosophy at the University of Oregon. He is known for contributions to embodied philosophy, cognitive science and cognitive linguistics. The excerpt is from Chapter 20 How Metaphors Can Give Meaning to Form, the 92th page to 101th page.

20. How Metaphor Can Give Meaning to Form

We speak in linear order; in a sentence, we say some words earlier and others later. Since speaking is correlated with time and time is metaphorically conceptualized in terms of space, it is natural for us to conceptualize language metaphorically in terms of space. Our writing system reinforces this conceptualization. Writing a sentence down allows us to conceptualize it even more readily as a spatial object with words in a linear order. Thus our spatial concepts naturally apply to linguistic expressions. We know which word occupies the first position in the sentence, whether two words are close to each other or jar apart, whether a word is relatively long or short.

Because we conceptualize linguistic form in spatial terms, it is possible for certain spatial metaphors to apply directly to the form of a sentence, as we conceive of it spatially. This can provide automatic direct links between form and content, based on general metaphors in our conceptual system. Such links make the relationship between form and content anything but arbitrary, and some of the meaning of a sentence can be due to the precise form the sentence takes. Thus, as Dwight Bolinger (1977) has claimed, exact paraphrases are usually impossible because the so-called paraphrases are expressed in different forms.

We can now offer an explanation for this:

We spatialize linguistic form.

Spatial metaphors apply to linguistic form as it is spatialized.

— Linguistic forms are themselves endowed with content by virtue of spatialization

metaphors.

More of Form Is More of Content

For example, the CONDUIT metaphor defines a spatial relationship between form and content: LINGUISTIC EXPRESSIONS ARE CONTAINERS and their meanings are the content of those containers. When we see actual containers that are small, we expect their contents to be small. When we see actual containers that are large, we normally expect their contents to be large. Applying this to the CONDUIT metaphor, we get the expectation:

MORE OF FORM IS MORE OF CONTENT.

As we shall see, this is a very general principle that seems to occur naturally throughout the worlds languages. Though the CONDUIT metaphor is widespread, we do not know yet whether it is universal. We would expect, how-ever, that some metaphorical spatialization of language would occur in every language and, whatever the details, it would not be surprising to find such correlations of amount.

An English example of MORE OF FORM IS MORE OF CON-TENT IS iteration:

He ran and ran and ran and ran. which indicates more running

than just He ran.

Similarly,

He is very very very tall.

indicates that he is taller than

He is very tall.

does. Extended lengthening of a vowel can have the same effect. Saying

He is bi-i-i-i-ig!

indicates that he is bigger than you indicate when you say

just

He is big.

Many languages of the world use the morphological device of reduplication, that is, the repetition of one or two syllables of a word, or of the whole word, in this way. To our knowledge, all cases of reduplication in the languages of the world are instances where MORE OF FORM stands for MORE OF CONTENT. The most typical devices are:

Reduplication applied to noun turns singular to plural or collective.

Reduplication applied to verb indicates continuation or completion.

Reduplication applied to adjective indicates intensification or increase.

Reduplication applied to a word for something small indicates diminution.

The generalization is as follows:

A noun stands for an object of a certain kind.

More of the noun stands for more objects of that kind.

A verb stands for an action.

More of the verb stands for more of the action (perhaps until completion).

An adjective stands for a property.

More of the adjective stands for more of the property.

A word stands for something small.

More of the word stands for something smaller.

Closeness Is Strength of Effect

A much subtler example of the way metaphor gives meaning to form occurs in English (and possibly in other languages as well, though detailed studies have not been done).

English has the conventional metaphor

CLOSENESS IS STRENGTH OF EFFECT.

Thus, the sentence

Who are the men closest to Khomeini? means

Who are the men who have the strongest effect on Khomeini?

Here the metaphor has a purely semantic effect. It has to do with the meaning of the word 'close.' However, the metaphor can also apply to the syntactic form of a sentence. The reason is that one of the things the syntax of the sentence indicates is how CLOSE two expressions are to each other. The CLOSENESS iS one of form.

This metaphor can apply to the relation between form and meaning in the following way:

If the meaning of form A affects the meaning of form B, then,

the CLOSER form A is to form B, the STRONGER will be the EFFECT of the meaning of A on the meaning of B.

For example, a sentential

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节选自乔治·拉科夫和马克·约翰逊所著的的《我们赖以生存的隐喻》。拉科夫是美国著名的认知语言学家和哲学家,他认为个人用于解释复杂现象的核心隐喻很大程度上影响了他们的生活。约翰逊是俄勒冈大学哲学系人文科学教授,因对体验哲学、认知科学和认知语言学的贡献而闻名。节选自第20章隐喻如何赋予形式意义,从92页到101页。

20.隐喻如何赋予形式意义

人类是说话的顺序是线性的。我们在说一句话的时候,词语是先后出来的。语言与时间相关联,时间是隐喻性的空间概念化,所以我们自然而然会将语言进行隐喻性的空间概念化。而且,我们的书写系统加强了这一概念化过程。写下一个句子,单词是按线性顺序排列的,这帮助我们更好地将句子作为一个空间对象来概念化理解。由此可见,空间概念也自然适用于语言表达。优先使用何单词,两个单词相近或相隔,单词偏长或偏短,这些我们都心里有数。

我们使用空间术语来表达语言形式的概念,所以从空间角度进行思考时,我们可以直接赋予句子形式以某些空间隐喻含义。基于概念系统的一般性隐喻理论,形式和内容之间可以自动形成直接联系。但形式和内容之间的关系绝非任意的。构成的句子的具体形式也会赋予句子以特定含义。因此,正如德怀特bull;鲍林杰(Dwight Bolinger, 1977)所言,所谓的释义就是采用不同的形式来表达相同意思,故而不存在准确的释义。

现在我们可以对此进行解释:

我们将语言形式空间化。

空间隐喻适用于空间化了的语言形式。

——语言形式本身就是借助空间隐喻来获得内容的。

形式越多样,内容越丰富

例如,管道隐喻理论是这样定义形式和内容的空间关系的:语言表达是容器,含义为容器内的容物。现实生活中,我们看到容量小的容器时,会认为里面容物很小,反之,看到容量大的容器时,一般会认为里面容物很大。将其运用于管道隐喻理论,可得:

形式越多样,内容越丰富。

我们要明白,这好像是一个天生就运行于全球各地的语言系统中的普遍性原则。但是,纵使管道隐喻理论广为流传,我们无法得知它是否普遍适用。无论如何,我们希望每种语言都存在隐喻性空间化,姑且不论具体情况如何,不出意外我们能统计出大量隐喻性空间化现象。

英文中反映“形式越多样,内容越丰富”的一个例子就是迭代:

He ran and ran and ran and ran. (他不停地跑啊跑,跑啊跑。)

He ran.(他跑了。)

比起第二句话,第一句话更加强调“不停地跑啊跑”而非仅仅“跑了”。

同样地,

He is very very very tall. (他非常非常高。)

He is very tall. (他很高。)

前者更加强调他“非常高”而非简单的“他很高”

延长元音也有同样的效果。比如:

He is bi-i-i-i-ig! (他很——大!)

这比说:

He is big. (他很大。)

表达的大的程度更甚一层。

世上很多语言都使用了重叠的形态学方法,即一或两个音节的重复乃至一个单词的重复。我们知道,世上所有语言中出现重叠的例子都符合“形式越多样,内容越丰富”的原理。最典型的方法是:

重复名词将单数变为复数或集合。

重复动词表示延续或结束。

重复形容词表示强化或增加。

重复形容某物微小的词表示减少。

总结如下:

名词代表某种物体。

重复该词代表更多同类事物。

动词代表动作。

重复该词代表动作更久(也许一直延续到动作结束)。

形容词代表属性。

重复该词代表属性强化。

某词形容事物微小

重复该词代表更加微小

接近性代表效果的强度

这是英语中隐喻赋予形式意义的更微妙的例子(尽管尚未详细研究过,但这也可能出现在其他语言中)。

英语中有一个常规隐喻:

接近性代表效果的强度。

因此,下述句子:

Who are the men closest to Khomeini?

(谁是和霍梅尼最亲近的人?)

意味着

Who are the men who have the strongest effect on Khomeini?

(谁是对霍梅尼影响最大的人?)

该句中,隐喻有纯粹的语义效果。这和单词“close”的意思有关。不过,隐喻也可以应用于句子的句法形式。因为句子的句法可以表现两种表述方式的紧密性。接近性是其中的一种。

隐喻能以如下方式应用于形式和意义之间:

如果形式A的含义影响形式B的含义,那么,

A的形式越靠近B的形式,A的意义对B的意义的影响就越大。

比如,句子否定词not有否定谓语的作用,如下句:

John wonrsquo;t leave until tomorrow. (约翰明天才离开)

形式nrsquo;t对谓语的形式leave有否定的作用。

英语中有否定词转移的原则,也就是让否定词远离被逻辑性否定的谓语,例如:

Mary doesnt think hell leave until tomorrow.

(玛丽认为他明天才会离开。)

此处,nt逻辑上否定的是“leave”而非“think”。

这句话和下面的话意思大致相同:

Mary thinks he wont leave until tomorrow.

(玛丽认为他不到明天不离开。)

此外,第一句中否定词离leave较远,否定程度较弱。第二句中否定词离leave较近,否定程度较强。

卡尔bull;齐默(Karl Zimmer)注意到相同的原则也决定了一些不同之处,比如:

Harry is not happy.

Harry is unhappy.

否定前缀un-离形容词happy更近,单独成词的not离happy更远。后者对快乐的否定比前者更强烈。unhappy意味着悲伤,而not happy则容许中立性解读——既不快乐也不悲伤,而是介于两者之间。这是英语和其他语言中否定词和否定词缀之间的典型区别。

同样的隐喻还出现在以下例子中:

I taught Greek to Harry. (我把希腊语教给哈利。)

I taught Harry Greek. (我教哈利希腊语。)

第二句中,“teach”和“Harry”更近,更强烈地表明Harry真的学会了别人教给他的东西,也就是说,教学对他产生了影响。下面的例子更加微妙:

I found that the chair was comfortable. (我发现了这个椅子是舒服的。)

I found the chair comfortable. (我发现了椅子很舒服。)

第二句话表明“我”通过直接体验——坐在椅子上——发现这把椅子很舒服。第一句话则有“我”间接发现椅子舒服的可能性——比如询问别人或进行调查。第二句中,形式I更接近形式the chair和comfortable。句子句法说明了“我”对椅子舒服的体验的直接性和间接性。形式I越接近形式椅子the chair和comfortable,表达的体验就越直接。这里,语法起到表示体验直接性的作用,而接近性则表示效果的强度。英语中的该现象得到了博尔金(Borkin)的详细证实。

同样的隐喻可以见于以下例子:

Sam killed Harry. (山姆杀死了哈利。)

Sam caused Harry to die. (山姆导致了哈利死亡。)

第一句话中,原因是一个单一事件,因此因果关系更加直接。第二句话中因果关系更间接、关系更远——因果是两个独立的事件,哈利的死亡和山姆的所作所为。如果想展现更加间接的因果关系,可以这么表示:

Sam brought it about that Harry died. (山姆造成了哈利的死亡。)

在这些句子中,语法发挥了表明山姆所做的事情和哈利发生的事情之间因果关系的直接性的作用。作用原则如下:

表示原因的形式与表示结果的形式越靠近,因果关系越紧密。

在Sam killed Harry中,只有一种形式——单词kill——既表示起因又表示结果(死亡)。表示意思的形式极其接近:一个单词就涵盖了起因和结果。这说明因果关系可以非常紧密:用一个单一事件表示。在Sam caused Harry to die中,用两个单独的单词——cause和die——来表示因果关系。这使得因果联系没有那么紧密——因果不是同一事件的一部分。在Sam brought it that Harry died中,有两个独立的分句:Sam brought it about和that Harry died,这两个分句展现了一个更弱的因果联系。

总之,综合所有情况,形式的不同造成了意义的细微差异。意义的细微差别源自常规隐喻“接近性代表效果的强度”原理,接近性适用于句子的句法成分,而效果的强度适用于句子的意义。接近性与形式相关,效果的强度与意义相关。因此,“接近性代表效果的强度”属于常规概念系统,它可以在纯粹的语义术语中起作用,比如“Who are the men closest to Khomeini?”又或者可以联系形式和意义,因为接近性可以表示句子中两个形式之间的关系。由此可见,在上述例子中,我们发现的意义的细微差别不是英语特殊规则作用的结果,而是概念系统中隐喻自然应用于语言形式的结果。

The ME-FIRST Orientation(以自己为优先导向)

Cooper和Ross(库柏和罗斯,1975)了解到一种文化对典型人物的看法决定了概念系统中概念的方向。经典人物构成概念参照点,概念系统中的许多概念,不管是否与经典人物的特征相似,都以此为参照点。由于人们典型的活动方式是向上的,看东西和行走时是向前的,大多数时间都在运动,他们认为自己基本上是好的。这些经验使我们形成了一个基本观点,我们认为自己是向上的,前进的,主动的,善良的,而非向下的,后退的,被动的,邪恶的。我们活在当地,活在当下,于是我们设想自己在此地而非彼地,在此时而非彼时。这就是Cooper和Ross所谓的以自己为优先导向:向上的,向前的,主动的,好的,此地,此时,这些都是靠向经典人物的;向下的,向后的,被动的,坏的,彼地,彼时,这些都是背离经典人物的。

这种文化取向与以下现实有关:

英语中某些单词有更加常态化的顺序。

较常态化:

上下,前后,主被动,好坏,此时此地,彼时彼地

不常态化:

下上,后前,被主动,坏好,彼时彼地,此时此地

基本原则就是:意义越接近原型人物性质的单词越优先。

这个原则表明了形式和内容之间的关系。就像目前可知的其他原则一样,它是常规概念系统中隐喻的结果:意义越近,越优先。比如,假设要你从一幅画中指出一个人。如果你说:

The first person on Bills left is Sam.

(比尔左边的第一个人是萨姆。)

你想表达的意思是

The person who is on Bills left and nearest to him is Sam.

(在比尔左边并离他最近的人是萨姆。)

总而言之:由于我们说话的顺序是线性的,我们必须不断选择单词的优先性。在“上下”和“下上”之间,如果不是随机选择,我们会自动选择前者。在“上”和“下”这两个概念中,“上”的概念更接近原型人物。根据概念系统中的“意义越近越优先”原则,我们把意义最接近的词(即“上”)优先放置。故而“上下”比“下上”更符合概念系统。

对该现象的详细说明和反例讨论可参见Cooper和Ross。

语法隐喻一致性:工具是伙伴

玩玩具的孩子会把玩具当成同伴对待,和玩具对话,睡觉时把玩具放在枕头旁边,这很常见。布娃娃就是专门为这个目的设计的玩具。成年人也会有类似的行为,把一些重要的工具当作朋友,比如汽车和枪,给它们起名,和它们说话,诸如此类。同样地,概念系统中有“工具是伙伴”的常规隐喻。这可以通过下列例子反映出来:

工具是伙伴

Me and my old Chevy have seen a lot of the country together.

(我和我的老伙伴雪佛兰一起游历了这个国家的很多地方。)

Q: Whos gonna stop me?

A: Me and old Betsy here [said by the cowboy reaching for his gun].

(问:谁能阻止我?

答:我,还有老贝琪(牛仔边说边拿枪))

Domenico is going on tour with his priceless Stradivarius. Sleezo the Magician and his Magic Harmonica will be per-forming tonight at the Rialto.

(多梅尼科将和他宝贵的斯特拉迪瓦里一起进行巡回演出。魔术师萨列佐

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