ERA Forum (2011) 12: 71–87 DOI 10.1007/s12027-011-0188-x
ARTICLE
The financial consequences of divorce across Europe
Jordi Ribot
Published online: 22 February 2011
copy; ERA 2011
Abstract The article examines where the main European legal systems stand as re- gards the financial consequences of divorce, trying to draw conclusions on the di- rection and speed of developments from the experience of these systems. First, the questions of how matrimonial property rules operate in the event of divorce and how they interact with the financial remedies provided by the law on divorce are examined. Next, the focus is shifted to the issue of maintenance after divorce. Recent legal de- velopments seem to indicate that a tendency to lessen the importance of maintenance and comparable claims is becoming even more pronounced.
Keywords Divorce · Maintenance between divorced spouses · Prestation compensatoire · Matrimonial property regimes · Ancillary relief
Introduction
The main effect of divorce is to terminate the relationship that has hitherto bound the parties. Divorce, however, also typically brings about the risk of economic depen- dence that marital cohabitation has so far concealed, and measures of legal redress
An earlier version of this paper was delivered at the Academy of European Law Annual Conference on European Family Law, Trier, 27 to 28 September 2010. It has been written as part of the research conducted by the UdG-European Private Law research group, with the support of the Consolidated Research Groups Programme of the Catalan Government (Ref. 2009 SGR 614).
Dr. J. Ribot, Professor of Civil Law ( )
Institute of European and Comparative Private Law, University of Girona, Campus de Montilivi, 17071 Girona, Spain
e-mail: ribot@elaw.udg.edu
are required.1 Indeed, after several decades of discussion on the availability of di- vorce and the grounds for divorce, the financial consequences attached by the law to the divorce have become the critical issue at stake. For many, they even provide the answer to the question of what the actual value of the marriage as a legal institution is.2
In dealing with the economic consequences of divorce, legal systems pursue dif- ferent and sometimes not fully consistent goals, the first being that after divorce the family situation should remain substantially equal. Needs addressed during marriage shall be met after divorce and each spouse and the children are to have the means to keep up the same standard of living they enjoyed during marriage.3 Another goal is for a spouse who becomes less well-off to be compensated for marriage-related detri- ments. These shall be offset by benefits accrued during marriage if they are available on termination. Finally, no legal order has thus far abandoned the idea that marriage, as a long life commitment influencing the personal and financial decisions of the parties, implies the sharing, to a variable extent, of the proceeds of the spousesrsquo; ac- tivities, including their earnings, the fruits of common and privative assets and other non-personal assets.4 On the other hand, punishing the spouse liable for the divorce is no longer the goal sought by the law concerning the financial consequences of di- vorce in the majority of European legal systems, though instances may be found here and there where fault is still relevant in reducing or even terminating financial relief on divorce.
Alongside these goals, two overarching principles have been gaining ground over the last few decades. First, there is the so-called principle of self-sufficiency, whereby after divorce each spouse is expected to be able to afford to provide for his or her needs without support from the former spouse. Secondly, there is the so-called prin- ciple of clean break, which requires avoiding as much as possible any further finan- cial relationship between the parties and to arrange their financial situation in such a manner as to allow each party to start afresh without being bound to the past.
Ambivalence and inconsistencies are common in the application of the different goals and principles embedded in laws on the financial consequences of divorce. Sec- tion 1569 BGB, for instance, indicates the economic self-responsibility of divorced spouses as the paramount principle of maintenance law. Even without any such legal declaration, however, this principle already existed in law. In practice, however, it was somewhat forgotten and the so-called principle of post-marriage solidarity was
1In too many cases, divorce is also the starting point of a process ending in social exclusion and poverty, which impinges on more severely on women than men. In fact, financial relief on divorce is sought only in a minority of cases. Sufficient assets to be divided are lacking and supporting two households is an unattainable goal. In those cases, family law certainly has little to offer. As the Finer Committee graphically put it in 1974, “private law is not capable of providing the method of extracting more than a pint from a pint pot” (quoted by Hale/Pearl/Cooke/Monk [11], p. 204).
2Krause [16], p. 1113. See also Luuml;deritz/Dethloff [20], p. 151.
3In 1970 the English Parliament expressed as the overarching objective of the then new legislation “to place the parties in the financial position in which they would have been if the marriage had not broken down”. Later on this overriding objective was removed as its practical attainment proved quite impossible (Thorpe [37], p. 503).
4See Pintens [33], p. 281.
given priori
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欧洲各地离婚的财务后果
作者:霍尔迪·里博
本文的早期版本于2010年9月27日至28日在特里尔欧洲法律欧洲家庭法年会上发表
摘要 本文探讨了欧洲各地的主要法律制度在离婚的财务后果方面的立场问题,试图从这些法律制度中找出离婚的发展方向。首先,对离婚时婚姻财产规则如何运作以及如何与离婚法规定的经济补救措施相互作用的问题进行了研究。接下来,重点转移到离婚后的维护问题上。最近的法律发展似乎表明,一种减少维护和索赔重要性的趋势变得更加明显。
关键词 离婚·离婚配偶之间的扶养·离婚补偿金·婚姻财产制度·附属救济
- 介绍
离婚的主要作用是终止迄今为止对双方都有约束力的婚姻关系。然而,离婚通常也会带来被婚姻同居所隐藏的经济依赖风险,这时就需要采取法律救济措施。[1]事实上,经过几十年关于离婚可得性和离婚理由的讨论,离婚所造成的经济后果已成为离婚制度中的关键问题。许多人甚至为婚姻作为一种法律制度具有何种实际价值这个问题提供了答案。[2]
在处理离婚的经济后果时,每个法律制度的追求是不同的,有时连目标都甚至不是完全一致的。首要目标是使离婚后的家庭状况保持基本平等,结婚期间满足的需求应在离婚后得到满足,并且要使得配偶和子女能够保持他们在婚姻期间享有的相同生活水平。[3] 另一个目标是让离婚中的生活水平相对较低的一方配偶得到与婚姻有关的损害赔偿。如果婚姻关系终止时可以获得这些补偿,则应由婚姻期间的累计福利予以抵消。最后,到目前为止,还没有任何法律制度放弃这样一种观点:婚姻作为影响双方个人决策和财务决策的长期承诺,意味着在不同程度上分享着配偶的收益,包括他们的收入,共同和私人资产以及其他非个人资产的成果。[4] 另一方面,在大多数欧洲法律制度中,惩罚对离婚负有责任的一方配偶不再是有关离婚的经济后果的法律所寻求的目标,尽管还可以在其他地方找到一些关于这方面的经济救济制度。
除了这些目标外,在过去的几十年里,还有两项首要原则正在逐步形成。首先,存在所谓的自给自足原则,即在离婚后,预计离婚双方都能够在没有前配偶支持的情况下负担得起自己的生活费用。其次,有所谓的“清分原则”,即要求当事人尽可能避免产生进一步的财务关系,并在这种情况下安排好他们各自的财务状况,以便让双方都重新开始生活而不受过去的约束。
在适用有关离婚经济后果的法律所包含的不同目标和原则时,矛盾和不一致是很常见的。例如,《欧洲家庭法中关于夫妻财产关系的原则》第1569条将离婚配偶的经济责任作为维持法的首要原则。然而,即使没有这样的法律声明,这一原则在法律上也已经存在。但是,在实践中,人们遗忘了这一点,并将所谓的婚后团结原则放在首位。[5] 人们还可以回忆起,1984年修订的《1973年婚姻诉讼法》(MCA)第25章旨在通过鼓励法院发布一次性命令或财产调整,促进双方获得经济独立,以此来代替定期付款。尽管如此,判例法还是缓和了这一指令和其他此类指令的重要性,根据案件的情况平衡了完全中断原则的优缺点。[6]法院也不愿意对定期付款施加时间限制,或将此类时间限制视为绝对时限。[7]
这些例子使得我们对当前形势有了透彻的了解。欧洲法律制度仍努力在寻找离婚后加强配偶的财务自主权和离婚后容易受到婚姻相关风险困扰的配偶维持最低限度的安全网之间的平衡点。虽然前一个目标似乎与妇女在欧洲社会中的地位的演变以及对结婚和离婚的社会观念相一致,但后者仍然是正义的基本要求。
关于目前可用的法律补救措施,它们在民法和普通法司法管辖中有很大不同。前者依赖于婚姻财产制度与离婚后的法定抚养义务相结合,[8] 而普通法司法管辖在法院酌情决定离婚时会给予经济上的宽免。此外,在法国和西班牙存在一个第三种属,即婚姻财产制度解体的财务影响由旨在补偿婚姻相关损害的津贴予以补充,这在实践中也实现了补救目的。[9][10]
从比较的角度来看,这种情况令人费解。只要普通法司法管辖能只通过一套规则解决离婚的财务后果问题,就很有可能通过将婚姻财产规则与维持婚后生活水平相结合来分析整个主题。实际上,这是一个非常有趣的学术观点:即施文策尔模型下的家庭行为准则。 [11]虽然这种解决方案很有吸引力,但在比较法律制度时却没什么帮助。此外,必须记住,大多数婚姻并非以离婚告终,婚姻财产法所追求的目标与离婚法所暗示的目标不同。鉴于后者试图避免其中一方承担离婚带来的不可避免的负面财务后果,婚姻财产制度的规则试图向前配偶提供一部分家庭资产,不论其现在是否拥有劳动报酬。同样,欧洲家庭法协会(CEFL)的研究计划是基于这种在大多数欧洲国家生效的双重模式。[12] 在我看来,这个选择更符合欧洲共同核心以及更适合在实践中解决问题。[13]
2、婚姻财产法和离婚
无一例外地,离婚意味着婚姻财产关系的解散,它控制着配偶双方在婚姻期间的经济关系。[14] 然而,大多数国家则依赖于法定制度中规定的违约规则,这些法定制度是由社区财产制度限定的,如财产共同体制度,延期社区或累算共同体制度(最好描述为参与收购)。[15]在离婚的情况下,婚姻财产制度的解散通常意味着配偶双方都要求分享婚姻资产或婚姻期间应得的收益。[16] 但是也有极少数的例外情况,比如奥地利和西班牙的法定法律制度、加泰罗尼亚的法律还有巴利阿里群岛的法律制度,最近也增加了瓦伦西亚地区的法律制度,这些地方实行财产分割制度。对它们来说,在普通法的司法管辖下,婚姻财产制度的概念是非常陌生的。
婚姻财产法的共同特征是,可适用制度的解散和随后的经济结果将通过双方的共同同意或任何一方可强制执行的附属司法决定来执行。从这个角度来看,社区制度的运作可以适当地被认为是自动的,因为它不依赖于某些外部或内部因素进行评估。司法自由裁量权通常仅限于审查有关诉讼所涉资产价值的证据,以及将某些资产转让给配偶作为付款的情况。因此,这被作为一项规则,法官不能拒绝执行社区分割。[17] 相反,法官有详细的法律规则可以参照,其目的是明确要包括在社区分割中的资产类型,即使可能需要复杂的计算和对资产价值的专业评估。[18]
通过将婚姻财产制度与英格兰和威尔士的相关经验进行比较,人们可能会认识到它们在提高法律确定性和结果可预见性方面的用处。[19]
《1973年婚姻诉讼法》第二部分涉及了与离婚诉讼有关的“附属财务救济”,但缺乏关于何时适用每种类型的命令及其适用范围的详细指南。[20] 在2000年的怀特诉怀特案中,[21]传统的方法是给予受抚养人配偶一笔使她能够负担起生活的财产[22] 。当这种救济被作为一种目的,共享与所谓的“平等标准”就需要被一起考虑。那么问题就变成了什么“财产”需要被考虑是否达到了平等标准所要求的对半分割。如果任何一方提出这样的要求,那么婚姻期间家庭所持有的所有资产将会被分割,无论是在婚前还是婚后获得。但是,一旦需求被合理地涵盖,人们就会立刻怀疑共享是否应该只限于婚姻期间积累的财富,或者更确切地说,人们会怀疑是否婚姻存续期间的任何财产都应该被分割。[23] 众所周知,在审判米勒诉米勒案;麦克法兰诉麦克法兰案 [24]中,法官采取了不同的方法,并且在关键方面留下了辅助性财政救济的轮廓,例如将配偶资产分类为婚姻资产或非婚姻资产,或者哪些情况允许偏离婚姻资产的平等分配等等。[25] 不断发展的学说引起了学术界的广泛讨论,但是也存在很多混乱的情况。[26]
因此,我们应该缓慢地废除有组织的婚姻财产法。正如英国的案例清楚地表明,仅仅依靠公平的司法调整来实现金融救济中隐含的不同目标并不是没有成本的。[27]除非能够制定出精确而直接的指导方针,否则极度的不确定性和缺乏一致性是我们所需要付出的代价。[28]
虽然与英国法律相比婚姻财产制度的具体规则可以说是成功的,但其缺点在于缺乏灵活性,这使得法官无法考虑实际发生的不同情况。虽然英国律师明智地要求在离婚时获得更大的经济救济的法律确定性,但在某些情况下,大陆律师也可以抱怨说,过于严格的婚姻财产规则的应用会带来不理想的结果。很可能发生的情况是配偶之间的资产或收益的平等分配义务会导致不公平的结果。在这些情况下,更大程度的灵活性将受到欢迎,但大多数欧洲法律制度并未向法官提供根据案件情况调整结果的相关规则。只有少数人允许法官用自由裁量权来处理令人烦恼的案件,并且不会对通常被认为取得公平结果的制度提出质疑。
可以确定两种基本事实模式。第一,婚姻资产分割不能为配偶或子女提供足够的财产,在这种情况下,可用资源会被不均等地分配以满足配偶和子女的需要,其中包括属于另一方的独立财产。[29] 第二种情况是,第二种情况是婚姻财产制度的结果对其中一方极不公平。在这里,只有一些北欧法律制度赋予法官根据案件情况调整结果的权力。[30]在法律制度中没有规定这种灵活性的国家,法院试图通过授予法官自由裁量权来规避这些困难。关于其他可用的补救措施:例如,在法国,为了免除赔偿金而放弃自己在家庭财产中的份额并不罕见。[31]法律上甚至能够对强制转移属于离婚配偶的资产给予合法授权,无论他或她是否在婚姻期间获得这些资产。[32]
另一方面,《婚姻财产制度解除规则》与《离婚经济后果具体规则》之间的协调似乎并不令人满意。根据婚姻财产法,现有的债权和财产可能对确定原告的需求有决定性的影响。[33]但是,由于这两套规则往往彼此独立运作,这就导致了一些困难,即如何避免将资产或债务考虑两次。<s
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